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FIRST    PRINCIPLES 


BY 


HERBERT   SPENCER 


AUTHOR    OF   SOCIAL   STATICS,    THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PSYCHOLOGY, 

ESSAYS  :    SCIENTIFIC,    POLITICAL    AND    SPECULATIVE, 

EDUCATION,    ETC. 


NEW     YORK 
D.     APPLETON     AND     COMPANY 
I 


Copyright,  1864, 
By  D.   APPLETON  AND  COMPANY. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH  EDITION. 


To  the  first  edition  of  this  work  there  should  have  been 
prefixed  a  definite  indication  of  its  origin ;  and  the  misappre- 
hensions that  have  arisen  in  the  absence  of  such  indication, 
ought  before  now  to  have  shown  me  the  need  for  supply- 
ing it. 

Though  reference  was  made  in  a  note  on  the  first  page 
of  the  original  preface,  to  certain  Essays  entitled  "  Progress: 
its  Law  and  Cause,"  and  "  Transcendental  Physiology,"  as 
containing  generalizations  which  were  to  be  elaborated  in 
the  "  System  of  Philosophy  "  there  set  forth  in  programme, 
yet  the  dates  of  these  Essays  were  not  given ;  nor  was  there 
any  indication  of  their  cardinal  importance  as  containing, 
in  a  brief  form,  the  general  Theory  of  Evolution,  Xo  clear 
evidence  to  the  contrary  standing  in  the  way,  there  has 
been  very  generally  uttered  and  accepted  the  belief  that 
this  work,  and  the  works  following  it,  originated  after, 
and  resulted  from,  the  special  doctrine  contained  in  Mr. 
Darwin's  Origin  of  Species. 

The  Essay  on  "  Progress:  its  Law  and  Cause,"  coexten- 
sive in  the  theory  it  contains  with  Chapters  XV.,  XVI., 
XVII. ,  and  XX.  in  Part  II.  of  this  work,  was  first  published 
in  the  Westminster  Review  for  April,  1857;  and  the  Essay 
in  which  is  briefly  set  forth  the  general  truth  elaborated  in 
Chapter  XIX.,  originally  appeared,  under  the  title  of  "  The 
Ultimate  Laws  of  Physiology,"  in  the  National  Review  for 
October,  1857.     Further,  I  may  point  out  that  in  the  first 


vi  PREFACE  TO   THE  FOURTH  EDITION. 

edition  of  the  Principles  of  Psychology,  published  in  July, 
1855,  mental  phenomena  are  interpreted  entirely  from  the 
evolution  point  of  view;  and  the  words  used  in  the  titles  of 
sundry  chapters,  imply  the  presence,  at  that  date,  of  ideas 
more  widely  applied  in  the  Essays  just  named.  As  the  first 
edition  of  The  Origin  of  Species  did  not  make  its  appear- 
ance till  October,  1859,  it  is  manifest  that  the  theory  set 
forth  in  this  work  and  its  successors,  had  an  origin  independ- 
ent of,  and  prior  to,  that  which  is  commonly  assumed  to 
have  initiated  it. 

The  distinctness  of  origin  might,  indeed,  have  been  in- 
ferred from  the  work  itself,  which  deals  with  Evolution 
at  large — Inorganic,  Organic,  and  Super-organic — in  terms 
of  Matter  and  Motion;  and  touches  but  briefly  on  those 
particular  processes  so  luminously  exhibited  by  Mr.  Dar- 
win. In  §  159  only  (p.  447),  when  illustrating  the  law 
of  "  The  Multiplication  of  Effects,"  as  universally  dis- 
played, have  I  had  occasion  to  refer  to  the  doctrine  set 
forth  in  the  Origin  of  Species  pointing  out  that  the  general 
cause  I  had  previously  assigned  for  the  production  of  diver- 
gent varieties  of  organisms,  would  not  suffice  to  account 
for  all  the  facts  without  that  special  cause  disclosed  by 
Mr.  Darwin.  The  absence  of  this  passage  would,  of 
course,  leave  a  serious  gap  in  the  general  argument; 
but  the  remainder  of  the  work  would  stand  exactly  as  it 
now  does. 

I  do  not  make  this  explanation  in  the  belief  that  the 
prevailing  misapprehension  will  thereby  soon  be  rectified; 
for  I  am  conscious  that,  once  having  become  current,  wrong 
beliefs  of  this  kind  long  persist — all  disproofs  notwithstand- 
ing. Nevertheless,  I  yield  to  the  suggestion  that  un- 
less I  state  the  facts  as  they  stand,  I  shall  continue 
to  countenance  the  misapprehension,  and  cannot  expect  it 
to  cease. 

With  the  exception  of  unimportant  changes  in  one  of 
the  notes,  and  some  typographical  corrections,  the  text  of 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH  EDITION. 


vn 


this  edition  is  identical  with  that  of  the  last.  I  have,  how- 
ever, added  an  Appendix  dealing  with  certain  criticisms 
that  have  been  passed  upon  the  general  formula  of  Evo- 
lution, and  upon  the  philosophical  doctrine  which  pre- 
cedes it. 

May,  1880. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


The  present  volume  is  the  first  of  a  series  designed  to  un- 
fold the  principles  of  a  new  philosophy.  It  is  divided  into 
two  parts:  the  aim  of  the  first  being  to  determine  the  true 
sphere  of  all  rational  investigation,  and  of  the  second,  to 
elucidate  those  fundamental  and  universal  principles  which 
science  has  established  within  that  sphere,  and  which  are  to 
constitute  the  basis  of  the  system.  The  scheme  of  truth  de- 
veloped in  these  First  Principles  is  complete  in  itself,  and 
has  its  independent  value;  but  it  is  designed  by  the 
author  to  serve  for  guidance  and  verification  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  succeeding  and  larger  portions  of  his  philo- 
sophic plan. 

Having  presented  in  his  introductory  volume  so  much  of 
the  general  principles  of  Physics  as  is  essential  to  the  devel- 
opment of  his  method,  Mr.  Spencer  enters  upon  the  subject 
of  Organic  nature.  The  second  work  of  the  series  is  to  be  the 
Principles  of  Biology — a  systematic  statement  of  the  facts 
and  laws  which  constitute  the  Science  of  Life.  It  is  not  to 
be  an  encyclopedic  and  exhaustive  treatise  upon  this  vast 
subject,  but  such  a  compendious  presentation  of  its  data  and 
general  principles  as  shall  interpret  the  method  of 
nature,  afford  a  clear  understanding  of  the  questions  in- 
volved, and  prepare  for  further  inquiries.  This  work  is 
now  published  in  quarterly  numbers,  of  from  80  to  96 
pages.    Four  of  these  parts  have  already  appeared,  and  some 

viii 


PREFACE  TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION.  ix 

idea  of  the  course  and  character  of  the  discussion  may  be 
formed  by  observing  the  titles  to  the  chapters,  which  are  as 
follows : 

Part  First:  I.  Organic  Matter;  II.  The  Actions  of 
Forces  on  Organic  Matter;  III.  The  Reactions  of  Organic 
Matter  on  Forces;  IV.  Proximate  Definition  of  Life;  V. 
The  Correspondence  between  Life  and  its  Circumstances; 
VI.  The  Degree  of  Life  varies  with  the  Degree  of  Corre- 
spondence; VII.  Scope  of  Biology.  Part  Second:  I. 
Growth ;  II.  Development ;  III.  Function ;  IV.  Waste  and 
Repair;  V.  Adaptation;  VI.  Individuality;  VII.  Genesis; 
VIII.  Heredity;  IX.  Variation;  X.  Genesis,  Heredity,  and 
Variation;  XL   Classification;   XII.   Distribution. 

The  Principles  of  Biology  will  be  followed  by  the  Princi- 
ples of  Psychology;  that  is,  Mr.  Spencer  will  pass  from  the 
consideration  of  Life  to  the  study  of  the  Mind.  This  subject 
will  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  the  great  truths  of  Biology 
previously  established ;  the  connexions  of  life  and  mind  will 
be  traced ;  the  evolution  of  the  intellectual  faculties  in  their 
due  succession,  and  in  correspondence  with  the  conditions 
of  the  environment,  will  be  unfolded,  and  the  whole  sub- 
ject of  mind  will  be  treated,  not  by  the  narrow  metaphysical 
methods,  but  in  its  broadest  aspect,  as  a  phase  of  nature's 
order  which  can  only  be  comprehended  in  the  light  of  her 
universal  plan. 

The  fourth  work  of  the  series  is  Sociology,  or  the  science 
of  human  relations.  As  a  multitude  is  but  an  assemblage  of 
units,  and  as  the  characteristics  of  a  multitude  result  from 
the  properties  of  its  units,  so  social  phenomena  are  conse- 
quences of  the  natures  of  individual  men.  Biology  and  Psy- 
chology are  the  two  great  keys  to  the  knowledge  of  human 
nature;  and  hence  from  these  Mr.  Spencer  naturally  passes 
to  the  subject  of  Social  Science.  The  growth  of  society, 
the  conditions  of  its  intellectual  and  moral  progress,  the  de- 
velopment of  its  various  activities  and  organizations,  will  be 
here  described,  and  a  statement  made  of  those  principles 


x  PREFACE  TO   THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 

which  are  essential  to  the  successful  regulation  of  social 
affairs. 

Lastly,  in  Part  Fifth,  Mr.  Spencer  proposes  to  consider 
the  Principles  of  Morality.  The  truths  furnished  by  Biolo- 
gy, Psychology,  and  Sociology  will  be  here  brought  to 
bear,  to  determine  correct  rules  of  human  action,  the  princi- 
ples of  private  and  public  justice,  and  to  form  a  true  theory 
of  right  living. 

The  reader  will  obtain  a  more  just  idea  of  the  extent  and 
jjroportions  of  Mr.  Spencer's  philosophic  plan,  by  consulting 
his  prospectus  at  the  close  of  the  volume.  It  will  be  seen 
to  embrace  a  wide  range  of  topics,  but  in  the  present  work, 
and  in  his  profound  and  original  volumes  on  the  "  Principles 
of  Psychology  "  and  "  Social  Statics,"  as  also  throughout 
his  numerous  Essays  and  Discussions,  we  discover  that  he 
has  already  traversed  almost  the  entire  field,  while  to  elabo- 
rate the  whole  into  one  connected  and  organized  philosoph- 
ical scheme,  is  a  work  well  suited  to  his  bold  and  comprehen- 
sive genius.  With  a  metaphysical  acuteness  equalled  only  by 
his  immense  grasp  of  the  results  of  physical  science — alike 
remarkable  for  his  profound  analysis,  constructive  ability, 
and  power  of  lucid  and  forcible  statement,  Mr.  Spencer  has 
rare  endowments  for  the  task  he  has  undertaken,  and  can 
hardly  fail  to  embody  in  his  system  the  largest  scientific  and 
philosophical  tendencies  of  the  age. 

As  the  present  volume  is  a  working  out  of  universal  prin- 
ciples to  be  subsequently  applied,  it  is  probably  of  a  more  ab- 
stract character  than  will  be  the  subsequent  works  of  the 
series.  The  discussions  strike  down  to  the  prof  oundest  basis 
of  human  thought,  and  involve  the  deepest  questions  upon 
which  the  intellect  of  man  has  entered.  Those  unaccus- 
tomed to  close  metaphysical  reasoning,  may  therefore  find 
parts  of  the  argument  not  easy  to  follow,  although  it  is 
here  presented  with  a  distinctness  and  a  vigor  to  be  found 
perhaps  in  no  other  author.  Still,  the  chief  portions  of  the 
book  may  be  read  by  all  with  ease  and  pleasure,  while  no  one 


PREFACE  TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION.  xi 

can  fail  to  be  repaid  for  the  persistent  effort  that  may  be  re- 
quired to  master  the  entire  argument.  All  who  have 
sufficient  earnestness  of  nature  to  take  interest  in  those 
transcendent  questions  which  are  now  occupying  the 
most  advanced  minds  of  the  age,  will  find  them  here 
considered  with  unsurpassed  clearness,  originality,  and 
power. 

The  invigorating  influence  of  philosophical  studies  upon 
the  mind,  and  their  consequent  educational  value,  have  been 
long  recognized.  In  this  point  of  view  the  system  here  pre- 
sented has  high  claims  upon  the  young  men  of  our  country, 
— embodying  as  it  does  the  latest  and  largest  results  of  posi- 
tive science ;  organizing  its  facts  and  principles  upon  a  natu- 
ral method,  which  places  them  most  perfectly  in  command 
of  memory ;  and  converging  all  its  lines  of  inquiry  to  the  end 
of  a  high  practical  beneficence, — the  unfolding  of  those  laws 
of  nature  and  human  nature  which  determine  personal  wel- 
fare and  the  social  polity.  Earnest  and  reverent  in  temper, 
cautious  in  statement,  severely  logical  and  yet  presenting 
his  views  in  a  transparent  and  attractive  style  which  com- 
bines the  precision  of  science  with  many  of  the  graces  of 
lighter  composition,  it  is  believed  that  the  thorough  study  of 
Spencer's  philosophical  scheme  would  combine,  in  an  un- 
rivalled degree,  those  prime  requisites  of  the  highest  educa- 
tion, a  knowledge  of  the  truths  which  it  is  most  impor- 
tant for  man  to  know,  and  that  salutary  discipline  of 
the  mental  faculties  which  results  from  their  systematic 
acquisition. 

We  say  the  young  men  of  our  country,  for  if  we  are  not 
mistaken,  it  is  here  that  Mr.  Spencer  is  to  find  his  largest 
and  fittest  audience.  There  is  something  in  the  bold  han- 
dling of  his  questions,  in  his  earnest  and  fearless  appeal  to 
first  principles,  and  in  the  practical  availability  of  his  conclu- 
sions, which  is  eminently  suited  to  the  genius  of  our  people. 
It  has  been  so  in  a  marked  sense  with  his  work  on  Education, 
and  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  so  in  an  equal 


xii  PREFACE   TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 

degree  with  his  other  writings.  They  betray  a  profound 
sympathy  with  the  best  spirit  of  our  institutions,  and  that 
noble  aspiration  for  the  welfare  and  improvement  of  society 
which  can  hardly  fail  to  commend  them  to  the  more  liberal 
and  enlightened  portions  of  the  American  public. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


When  the  First  Edition  of  this  work  was  published,  I  sup- 
posed that  the  general  theory  set  forth  in  its  Second  Part, 
was  presented  in  something  like  a  finished  form;  but  sub- 
sequent thought  led  me  to  further  developments  of  much 
importance,  and  disclosed  the  fact  that  the  component 
parts  of  the  theory  had  been  wrongly  put  together. 
Even  in  the  absence  of  a  more  special  reason,  I  had  decided 
that,  on  the  completion  of  the  Principles  of  Biology, \t  would 
be  proper  to  suspend  for  a  few  months  the  series  I  am 
issuing,  that  I  might  make  the  required  re-organization. 
And  when  the  time  had  arrived,  there  had  arisen  a  more 
special  reason,  which  forbade  hesitation.  Translations  into 
the  French  and  Russian  languages  were  about  to  be  made 
— had,  in  fact,  been  commenced ;  and  had  I  deferred  the  re- 
organization the  work  would  have  been  reproduced  with 
all  its  original  imperfections.  This  will  be  a  sufficient  ex- 
planation to  those  who  have  complained  of  the  delay  in  the 
issue  of  the  Principles  of  Psychology. 

The  First  Part  remains  almost  untouched:  two  verbal 
alterations  only,  on  pp.  43  and  99,  having  been  made  to 
prevent  misconceptions.  Part  II.,  however,  is  wholly  trans- 
formed. Its  first  chapter,  on  "  Laws  in  General,"  is  omitted, 
with  a  view  to  the  inclusion  of  it  in  one  of  the  latter  volumes 
of  the  series.  Two  minor  chapters  disappear.  Most  of  the 
rest  are  transposed,  in  groups  or  singly.  And  there  are  nine 
new  chapters  embodying  the  further  developments,   and 


XIV 


PREFACE  TO   THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


serving  to  combine  the  preexisting  chapters  into  a  changed 
whole.  The  following  scheme  in  which  the  new  chapters 
are  marked  by  italics,  will  give  an  idea  of  the  transforma- 
tion : — 

First  Edition.  Second  Edition. 


Laws  in  Qcnoral. 

The  Law  of  Evolution. 

The  Law  of  Evolution  (continued). 


Philosophy  Defined. 
The  Data  of  Philosophy. 


Space,  Time,  Matter,  Motion,  and 

Force. 
The  Indestructibility  of  Matter. 
The  Continuity  of  Motion. 
The  Persistence  of  Force. 


The  Correlation  and  Equivalence 

of  Forces. 
The  Direction  of  Motion. 
The  Rhythm  of  Motion. 


The  Conditions  essential  to  Evolu- 
tion, 


The  Instability  of    the    Homoge- 
neous. 
The  Multiplication  of  Effects. 
Differentiation  and  Integration. 
Equilibration. 

Summary  and  Conclusion. 


Space,  Time,  Matter,  Motion,  and 
Force. 

The  Indestructibility  of  Matter. 

The  Continuity  of  Motion. 

The  Persistence  of  Force. 

The  Persistence  of  Relations  among 
Forces. 

The  Transformation  and  Equiva- 
lence of  Forces. 

The  Direction  of  Motion. 

The  Rhythm  of  Motion. 

Recapitulation,  Criticism,  and  Re- 
commencement. 

Evolution  and  Dissolution. 

Simple  and  Compound  Evolution. 


Re-ar- 
ranged 
with  ad- 
ditions. 


The  Law  of  Evolution. 

The  Law  of  Evolution 
(continued). 

The  Law  of  Evolution 
(continued). 

The  Law  of  Evolution  (concluded). 

The  Interpretation  of  Evolution. 

The    Instability  of   the    Homoge- 
neous. 

The  Multiplication  of  Effects. 

Segregation. 

Equilibration. 

Dissolution. 

Summary    and     Conclusion     (Re- 
written). 


Of  course  throughout  this  re-organized  Second  Part 
the  numbers  of  the  sections  have  been  changed  and  hence 


PREFACE   TO  THE  SECOND   EDITION. 


xv 


those  who  possess  the  Principles  of  Biology,  in  which  many 
references  are  made  to  passages  in  First  Principles,  would 
be  inconvenienced  by  the  want  of  correspondence  between 
the  numbers  of  the  sections  in  the  original  edition  and  in  the 
new  edition,  were  they  without  any  means  of  identifying  the 
sections  as  now  numbered.  The  annexed  list,  showing  which 
section  answers  to  which  in  the  two  editions,  will  meet  the 
requirement : — 


First 

Second 

Edit. 

Edit. 

§43 

§119 

44 

117 

45 

118 

46 

120 

47 

121 

48 

122 

49 

123 

50 

124 

51 

125 

52 

126 

53 

128 

54 

129 

fl30 

131 

132 

55  < 

133 
134 

135 

136 

[137 

First 

Second 

Edit. 

Edit. 

fl07 

108 

109 

110 

§56^ 

111 

112 

113 

114 

115 

61 

46 

62 

47 

63 

48 

64 

49 

65 

50 

66 

52 

67 

53 

68 

54 

69 

55 

70 

56 

71 

57 

First 
Edit. 

§72 
73 

Second 
Edit. 

§58 
59 

74 

60 

75 

61 

76 

62 

77 

66 

78 

67 

79 

68 

80 

69 

81 

70 

82 

71 

83 

72 

84 

73 

85 

74 

86 

75 

87 

76 

88 

77 

89 

78 

90 

79 

91 

80 

First    Second 
Edit.       Edit. 

81 

82 
83 
84 

85 
86 

87 


§92 
93 
94 
95 
96 
97 
98 
99   88 

109  149 

110  150 

111  151 

112  152 

113  153 

114  154 

115  155 

116  156 

117  157 

118  158 

119  159 

120  160 


First  Second 
Edit.     Edit. 
§121    §161 

122  162 

123  163 

124  164 

125  165 

126  166 

127  167 

128  168 

129  169 

130  170 

131  171 

132  172 

133  173 

134  174 

135  175 

136  176 
177 


'183 

144  193 

145  194 


The  original  stereotype  plates  have  been  used  wherever 
it  was  possible ;  and  hence  the  exact  correspondence  between 
the  two  editions  in  many  places,  even  where  adjacent  pages 
are  altered. 


London,  November,  1867. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


This  volume  is  the  first  of  a  series  described  in  a  prospectus 
originally  distributed  in  March,  1860.  Of  that  prospectus, 
the  annexed  is  a  reprint. 

A  SYSTEM  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

Mr.  Herbert  Spexcer  proposes  to  issue  in  periodical  parts  a 
connected  series  of  works  which  he  has  for  several  years  been 
preparing.  Some  conception  of  the  general  aim  and  scope  of 
this  series  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  Programme. 

FIRST    PRINCIPLES. 

Part  I.  The  Unknowable. — Carrying  a  step  further  the 
doctrine  put  into  shape  by  Hamilton  and  Mansel;  pointing 
out  the  various  directions  in  which  Science  leads  to  the  same 
conclusions;  and  showing  that  in  this  united  belief  in  an  Ab- 
solute that  transcends  not  only  human  knowledge  but  human 
conception,  lies  the  only  possible  reconciliation  of  Science 
and  Religion. 

Part  II.  Laws  of  the  Know  able. — A  statement  of  the 
ultimate  principles  discernible  throughout  all  manifestations 
of  the  Absolute — those  highest  generalizations  now  being 
disclosed  by  Science  which  are  severally  true  not  of  one  class 
of  phenomena  but  of  all  classes  of  phenomena;  and  which 
are  thus  the  keys  to  all  classes  of  phenomena.* 

*  One  of  these  generalizations  is  that  currently  known  as  "  the  Conser- 
vation of  Force  ;  "  a  second  may  be  gathered  from  a  published  essay  on 
"  Progress :  its  Law  and  Cause ;  "  a  third  is  indicated  in  a  paper  on 
"  Transcendental  Physiology  ; "  and  there  are  several  others. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION.  xvii 

[In  logical  order  should  here  come  the  application  of  these 
First  Principles  to  Inorganic  Nature.  But  this  great  division 
it  is  proposed  to  pass  over :  partly  because,  even  without  it,  the 
scheme  is  too  extensive  ;  and  partly  because  the  interpretation 
of  Organic  Nature  after  the  proposed  method,  is  of  more  im- 
mediate importance.  The  second  work  of  the  series  ivill  there- 
fore be — ] 

THE  PKINCIPLES  OF  BIOLOGY. 

Vol.  I. 

Pakt  I.  The  Data  of  Biology. — Including  those  general 
truths  of  Physics  and  Chemistry  with  which  rational  Biology 
must  set  out. 

II.  The  Inductions  or  Biology. — A  statement  of  the 
leading  generalizations  which  Naturalists,  Physiologists,  and 
Comparative  Anatomists,  have  established. 

III.  The  Evolution  of  Life. — Concerning  the  specula- 
tion commonly  known  as  "  The  Development  Hypothesis  " — 
its  a  priori  and  a  posteriori  evidences. 

Vol.  II. 

IV.  Moephological  Development. — Pointing  out  the 
relations  that  are  everywhere  traceable  between  organic  forms 
and  the  average  of  the  various  forces  to  which  they  are  sub- 
ject; and  seeking  in  the  cumulative  effects  of  such  forces  a 
theory  of  the  forms. 

V.  Physiological  Development. — The  progressive  dif- 
ferentiation of  functions  similarly  traced;  and  similarly  in- 
terpreted as  consequent  upon  the  exposure  of  different  parts 
of  organisms  to  different  sets  of  conditions. 

VI.  The  Laws  of  Multiplication. — Generalizations  re- 
specting the  rates  of  reproduction  of  the  various  classes  of 
plants  and  animals;  followed  by  an  attempt  to  show  the  de- 
pendence of  these  variations  upon  certain  necessary  causes.* 

*  The  ideas  to  be  developed  in  the  second  volume  of  the  Principles  of 
Biology  the  writer  has  already  briefly  expressed  in  sundry  Review-Arti- 
cles.   Part  IV.  will  work  out  a  doctrine  suggested  in  a  paper  on  "  The 
2 


xviii  PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  PSYCHOLOGY. 

Vol.   I. 

Paet  I.  The  Data  of  Psychology. — Treating  of  the 
general  connexions  of  Mind  and  Life  and  their  relations  to 
other  modes  of  the  Unknowable. 

II.  The  Inductions  of  Psychology. — A  digest  of  such 
generalizations  respecting  mental  phenomena  as  have  already 
been  empirically  established. 

III.  General  Synthesis. — A  republication,  with  addi- 
tional chapters,  of  the  same  part  in  the  already-published  Prin- 
ciples of  Psychology. 

IV.  Special  Synthesis. — A  republication,  with  exten- 
sive revisions  and  additions,  of  the  same  part,  &c.  &c. 

V.  Physical  Synthesis. — An  attempt  to  show  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  succession  of  states  of  consciousness  con- 
forms to  a  certain  fundamental  law  of  nervous  action  that 
follows  from  the  First  Principles  laid  down  at  the  outset. 

Vol.  II. 

VI.  Special  Analysis. — As  at  present  published,  but 
further  elaborated  by  some  additional  chapters. 

VII.  General  Analysis. — As  at  present  published,  with 
several  explanations  and  additions. 

VIII.  Corollaries.-  —  Consisting  in  part  of  a  number  of 
derivative  principles  which  form  a  necessary  introduction  to 
Sociology.* 

Laws  of  Organic  Form,"  published  in  the  Medico-Chirurgical  Review 
for  January,  1859.  The  germ  of  Part  V.  is  contained  in  the  essay  on 
"  Transcendental  Physiology :  "  See  Essays,  pp.  280-90.  And  in  Part  VI. 
will  be  unfolded  certain  views  crudely  expressed  in  a  "  Theory  of  Popula- 
tion," published  in  the  Westminster  Review  for  April,  1852. 

*  Respecting  the  several  additions  to  be  made  to  the  Principles  of 
Psychology,  it  seems  needful  only  to  say  that  Part  V.  is  the  unwritten 
division  named  in  the  preface  to  that  work — a  division  of  which  the 
germ  is  contained  in  a  note  on  page  544,  and  of  which  the  scope  has  since 
been  more  definitely  stated  in  a  paper  in  the  Medico-Chirurgical  Review 
for  Jan.  1859. 


PREFACE  TO  THE   FIRST  EDITION.  xix 


THE   PRINCIPLES    OF   SOCIOLOGY. 

Vol.   I. 

Part  I.  The  Data  of  Sociology. — A  statement  of  the 
several  sets  of  factors  entering  into  social  phenomena — human 
ideas  and  feelings  considered  in  their  necessary  order  of  evo- 
lution; surrounding  natural  conditions;  and  those  ever  com- 
plicating conditions  to  which  Society  itself  gives  origin. 

II.  The  Inductions  of  Sociology. — General  facts,  struc- 
tural and  functional,  as  gathered  from  a  survey  of  Societies 
and  their  changes:  in  other  words,  the  empirical  generaliza- 
tions that  are  arrived  at  by  comparing  different  societies,  and 
successive  phases  of  the  same  society. 

III.  Political  Organization. — The  evolution  of  gov- 
ernments, general  and  local,  as  determined  by  natural  causes; 
their  several  types  and  metamorphoses;  their  increasing  com- 
plexity and  specialization;  and  the  progressive  limitation  of 
their  functions. 

Vol.  II. 

IV.  Ecclesiastical  Organization. — Tracing  the  dif- 
ferentiation of  religious  government  from  secular;  its  suc- 
cessive complications  and  the  multiplication  of  sects;  the 
growth  and  continued  modification  of  religious  ideas,  as  caused 
by  advancing  knowledge  and  changing  moral  character;  and 
the  gradual  reconciliation  of  these  ideas  with  the  truths  of 
abstract  science. 

V.  Ceremonial  Organization. — The  natural  history  of 
that  third  kind  of  government  which,  having  a  common  root 
with  the  others,  and  slowly  becoming  separate  from  and  sup- 
plementary to  them,  serves  to  regulate  the  minor  actions  of 
life. 

VI.  Industrial  Organization. — The  development  of 
productive  and  distributive  agencies,  considered,  like  the  fore- 
going, in  its  necessary  causes:  comprehending  not  only  the 
progressive  division  of  labour,  and  the  increasing  complexity 
of  each  industrial  agency,  but  also  the  successive  forms  of 


XX 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


industrial  government  as  passing  through  like  phases  with 
political  government. 

Vol.  III. 

VII.  Lingual  Progress. — The  evolution  of  Languages 
regarded  as  a  psychological  process  determined  by  social  con- 
ditions. 

VIII.  Intellectual  Progress. — Treated  from  the  same 
point  of  view:  including  the  growth  of  classifications;  the 
evolution  of  science  out  of  common  knowledge;  the  advance 
from  qualitive  to  quantative  prevision,  from  the  indefinite 
to  the  definite,  and  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract. 

IX.  ^Esthetic  Progress. — The  Fine  Arts  similarly  dealt 
with:  tracing  their  gradual  differentiation  from  primitive  in- 
stitutions and  from  each  other;  their  increasing  varieties  of 
development;  and  their  advance  in  reality  of  expression  and 
superiority  of  aim. 

X.  Moral  Progress. — Exhibiting  the  genesis  of  the  slow 
emotional  modifications  which  human  nature  undergoes  in  its 
adaptation  to  the  social  state. 

XL  The  Consensus. — Treating  of  the  necessary  inter- 
dependence of  structures  and  of  functions  in  each  type  of  so- 
ciety, and  in  the  successive  phases  of  social  development.* 

*  Of  this  treatise  on  Sociology  a  few  small  fragments  may  be  found  in 
already-published  essays.  Some  of  the  ideas  to  be  developed  in  Part  II 
are  indicated  in  an  article  on  "  The  Social  Organism,"  contained  in  the 
last  number  of  the  Westminster  Review  ;  those  which  Part  V.  will  work 
out,  may  be  gathered  from  the  first  half  of  a  paper  written  some  years 
since  on  "  Manners  and  Fashion ; "  of  Part  VIII.  the  germs  are  contained  in 
an  article  on  the  "  Genesis  of  Science ;  "  two  papers  on  "  The  Origin  and 
Function  of  Music  "  and  "  The  Philosophy  of  Style,"  contain  some  ideas 
to  be  embodied  in  Part  IX. ;  and  from  a  criticism  of  Mr.  Bain's  work  on 
"  The  Emotions  and  the  Will,"  in  the  last  number  of  the  Iledico-Chirur- 
gical  Review,  the  central  idea  to  be  developed  in  Part  X.  may  be  inferred. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION.  xxi 

THE    PRINCIPLES    OF   MORALITY. 

Vol.  I. 

Part  I.  The  Data  of  Morality. — Generalizations  fur- 
nished by  Biology,  Psychology  and  Sociology,  which  underlie 
a  true  theory  of  right  living:  in  other  words,  the  elements  of 
that  equilibrium  between  constitution  and  conditions  of  ex- 
istence, which  is  at  once  the  moral  ideal  and  the  limit  towards 
which  we  are  progressing. 

II.  The  Inductions  of  Morality. — Those  empirically- 
established  rules  of  human  action  which  are  registered  as  es- 
sential laws  by  all  civilized  nations:  that  is  to  say — the  gen- 
eralizations of  expediency. 

III.  Personal  Morals. — The  principles  of  private  con- 
duct— physical,  intellectual,  moral  and  religious — that  follow 
from  the  conditions  to  complete  individual  life:  or,  what  is 
the  same  thing — those  modes  of  private  action  which  must 
result  from  the  eventual  equilibration  of  internal  desires  and 
external  needs. 

Vol.  II. 

IV.  Justice. — The  mutual  limitations  of  men's  actions 
necessitated  by  their  co-existence  as  units  of  a  society — limita- 
tions, the  perfect  observance  of  which  constitutes  that  state 
of  equilibrium  forming  the  goal  of  political  progress. 

V.  Negative  Beneficence. — Those  secondary  limita- 
tions, similarly  necessitated,  which,  though  less  important  and 
not  cognizable  by  law,  are  yet  requisite  to  prevent  mutual 
destruction  of  happiness  in  various  indirect  ways:  in  other 
words — those  minor  self-restraints  dictated  by  what  may  be 
called  passive  sympathy. 

VI.  Positive  Beneficence. — Comprehending  all  modes 
of  conduct,  dictated  by  active  sympathy,  which  imply  pleasure 
in  giving  pleasure — modes  of  conduct  that  social  adaptation 
has  induced  and  must  render  ever  more  general;  and  which, 


xxii  PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 

in  becoming  universal,  must  fill  to  the  full  the  possible  meas- 
ure of  human  happiness.* 

In  anticipation  of  the  obvious  criticism  that  the  scheme 
here  sketched  out  is  too  extensive,  it  may  be  remarked  that  an 
exhaustive  treatment  of  each  topic  is  not  intended;  but  simply 
the  establishment  of  principles,  with  such  illustrations  as  are 
needed  to  make  their  bearings  fully  understood.  It  may  also 
be  pointed  out  that,  besides  minor  fragments,  one  large  divis- 
ion (The  Principles  of  Psychology)  is  already,  in  great  part, 
executed.  And  a  further  reply  is,  that  impossible  though  it 
may  prove  to  execute  the  whole,  yet  nothing  can  be  said  against 
an  attempt  to  set  forth  the  First  Principles  and  to  carry  their 
applications  as  far  as  circumstances  permit. 

The  price  per  Number  to  be  half-a-crown;  that  is  to  say, 
the  four  Numbers  yearly  issued  to  be  severally  delivered,  post 
free,  to  all  annual  subscribers  of  Ten  Shillings. 

*  Part  IV.  of  the  Principles  of  Morality  will  be  co-extensive  (though 
not  identical)  with  the  first  half  of  the  writer's  Social  Statics. 


This  programme  I  have  thought  well  to  reprint  for  two 
reasons: — the  one  being  that  readers  may,  from  time  to 
time,  be  able  to  ascertain  what  topics  are  next  to  be  dealt 
with;  the  other  being  that  an  outline  of  the  scheme  may 
remain,  in  case  it  should  never  be  completed. 

The  successive  instalments  of  which  this  volume  consists, 
were  issued  to  the  subscribers  at  the  following  dates : — Part 
I.  (pp.  1—80)  in  October,  1860;  Part  II.  (pp.  81—176)  in 
January,  1861;  Part  III.  (pp.  177—256)  in  April,  1861; 
Part  IV.  (pp.  257—334)  in  October,  1861;  Part  Y.  (pp. 
335—416)  in  March,  1862;  and  Part  VI.  (pp.  417—504)  in 
June,  1862.* 

London,  June  5th,  1862. 

*  These  dates  and  pagings  of  the  divisions  as  originally  issued,  of 
course  do  not  apply  to  the  volume  as  it  now  stands,  beyond  page  123. 


CONTENTS. 


PAET  I.— THE  UNKNOWABLE. 

CHAP. 

I. RELIGION   AND    SCIENCE 

II. ULTIMATE   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS 

III. ULTIMATE    SCIENTIFIC    IDEAS 

IV. — THE    RELATIVITY    OF   ALL   KNOWLEDGE 

V. THE   RECONCILIATION  .... 


PAGE 

3 

26 

49 

70 

100 


PAET  II.— THE  KNOW  ABLE. 

I. — PHILOSOPHY   DEFINED 129 

II. — THE   DATA   OF   PHILOSOPHY  .  .  .  ,137 

III. — SPACE,    TIME,    MATTER,    MOTION,    AND    FORCE  .       161 

IV. THE   INDESTRUCTIBILITY    OF   MATTER     .  .  .176 

V. THE   CONTINUITY    OF    MOTION  .  .  .  .184 

VI. THE   PERSISTENCE    OF   FORCE  .  .  .  .194 

VII. THE    PERSISTENCE    OF   RELATIONS   AMONG   FORCES.       201 

VIII. THE      TRANSFORMATION      AND      EQUIVALENCE      OF 

FORCES 205 

IX. THE   DIRECTION   OF   MOTION  .  .  .  .232 

X. THE    RHYTHM   OF   MOTION 259 

xxiii 


XXIV 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP. 

XI.- 


XII.- 

XIII, 

XIV 

XV, 

XVI 

XVII 

XVIII 

XIX, 

XX 

XXI 

XXII 

XXIII 

XXIV, 


— RECAPITULATION,     CRITICISM,     AND     RECOMMENCE- 
MENT   282 

—EVOLUTION   AND    DISSOLUTION         .  .  .  .288 

SIMPLE   AND   COMPOUND   EVOLUTION     .  .  .297 

, THE   LAW   OF   EVOLUTION   .  .  .  .  .317 

— THE    LAW    OF   EVOLUTION    CONTINUED  .  .339 

, THE    LAW    OF   EVOLUTION    CONTINUED  .  .372 

THE    LAW    OF    EVOLUTION    CONCLUDED  .  .       392 

— THE   INTERPRETATION    OF   EVOLUTION  .  .408 

— THE    INSTABILITY    OF   THE    HOMOGENEOUS     .  .412 

THE   MULTIPLICATION    OF    EFFECTS         .  .  .       442 

, SEGREGATION  : 471 

, EQUILIBRATION 496 

DISSOLUTION 531 

SUMMARY   AND    CONCLUSION  .  .  .  .551 


PART    I. 


THE    UNKNOWABLE, 


CHAPTEE  I. 

RELIGION   AND    SCIENCE. 

§  1.  We  too  often  forget  that  not  only  is  there  "  a  soul 
of  goodness  in  things  evil,"  but  very  generally  also,  a  soul  of 
truth  in  things  erroneous.  While  many  admit  the  abstract 
probability  that  a  falsity  has  usually  a  nucleus  of  reality, 
few  bear  this  abstract  probability  in  mind,  when  passing 
judgment  on  the  opinions  of  others.  A  belief  that  is  finally 
proved  to  be  grossly  at  variance  with  fact,  is  cast  aside  with 
indignation  or  contempt;  and  in  the  heat  of  antagonism 
scarcely  any  one  inquires  what  there  was  in  this  belief  which 
commended  it  to  men's  minds.  Yet  there  must  have  been 
something.  And  there  is  reason  to  suspect  that  this  some- 
thing was  its  correspondence  with  certain  of  their  expe- 
riences: an  extremely  limited  or  vague  correspondence 
perhaps;  but  still,  a  correspondence.  Even  the  absurdest  re- 
port may  in  nearly  every  instance  be  traced  to  an  actual  oc- 
currence; and  had  there  been  no  such  actual  occurrence, 
this  preposterous  misrepresentation  of  it  would  never  have 
existed.  Though  the  distorted  or  magnified  image  trans- 
mitted to  us  through  the  refracting  medium  of  rumour, 
is  utterly  unlike  the  reality;  yet  in  the  absence  of  the  real- 
ity there  would  have  been  no  distorted  or  magnified  image. 
And  thus  it  is  with  human  beliefs  in  general.  Entirely 
wrong  as  they  may  appear,  the  implication  is  that  they 
germinated  out  of  actual  experiences — originally  contained, 
and  perhaps  still  contain,  some  small  amount  of  verity. 

More  especially  may  we  safely  assume  this,  in  the  case 

3 


4  RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE. 

of  beliefs  that  have  long  existed  and  are  widely  diffused; 
and  most  of  all  so,  in  the  case  of  beliefs  that  are  perennial 
and  nearly  or  quite  universal.     The  presumption  that  any 
current  opinion  is  not  wholly  false,  gains  in  strength  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  its  adherents.    Admitting,  as  we  must, 
that  life  is  impossible  unless  through  a  certain  agreement  be- 
tween internal  convictions  and  external  circumstances;   ad- 
mitting therefore  that  the  probabilities  are  always  in  favour 
of  the  truth,  or  at  least  the  partial  truth,  of  a  conviction;  we 
must  admit  that  the  convictions  entertained  by  many  minds 
in  common  are  the  most  likely  to  have  some  foundation. 
The  elimination  of  individual  errors  of  thought,  must  give 
to  the  resulting  judgment  a  certain  additional  value.     It 
may  indeed  be  urged  that  many  widely-spread  beliefs  are 
received  on  authority;  that  those  entertaining  them  make 
no  attempts  at  verification;  and  hence  it  may  be  inferred 
that  the  multitude  of  adherents  adds  but  little  to  the  proba- 
bility of  a  belief.    But  this  is  not  true.    For  a  belief  which 
gains  extensive  reception  without  critical  examination,  is 
thereby  proved  to  have  a  general  congruity  with  the  various 
other  beliefs  of  those  who  receive  it;  and  in  so  far  as  these 
various  other  beliefs  are  based  upon  personal  observation 
and  judgment,  they  give  an  indirect  warrant  to  one  with 
which  they  harmonize.     It  may  be  that  this  warrant  is  of 
small  value;  but  still  it  is  of  some  value. 

Could  we  reach  definite  views  on  this  matter,  they  would 
be  extremely  useful  to  us.  It  is  important  that  we  should,  if 
possible,  form  something  like  a  general  theory  of  current 
opinions;  so  that  we  may  neither  over-estimate  nor  under- 
estimate their  worth.  Arriving  at  correct  judgments  on  dis- 
puted questions,  much  depends  on  the  attitude  of  mind  we 
preserve  while  listening  to,  or  taking  part  in,  the  contro- 
versy; and  for  the  preservation  of  a  right  attitude,  it  is 
needful  that  we  should  learn  how  true,  and  yet  how  untrue, 
are  average  human  beliefs.  On  the  one  hand,  we  must 
keep  free  from  that  bias  in  favour  of  received  ideas  which 


RELIGION  AND   SCIENCE.  5 

expresses  itself  in  such  dogmas  as  "  What  every  one  says 
must  be  true/'  or  "  The  voice  of  the  people  is  the  voice  of 
God."  On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  disclosed  by  a  survey 
of  the  past,  that  majorities  have  usually  been  wrong,  must 
not  blind  us  to  the  complementary  fact,  that  majorities 
have  usually  not  been  entirely  wrong.  And  the  avoidance 
of  these  extremes  being  a  prerequisite  to  catholic  thinking, 
we  shall  do  well  to  provide  ourselves  with  a  safe-guard 
against  them,  by  making  a  valuation  of  opinions  in  the  ab- 
stract. To  this  end  we  must  contemplate  the  kind  of  rela- 
tion that  ordinarily  subsists  between  opinions  and  facts. 
Let  us  do  so  with  one  of  those  beliefs  which  under  various 
forms  has  prevailed  among  all  nations  in  all  times. 

§  2.  The  earliest  traditions  represent  rulers  as  gods  or 
demigods.  By  their  subjects,  primitive  kings  were  regarded 
as  superhuman  in  origin,  and  superhuman  in  power.  They 
possessed  divine  titles;  received  obeisances  like  those  made 
before  the  altars  of  deities ;  and  were  in  some  cases  actually 
worshipped.  If  there  needs  proof  that  the  divine  and  half- 
divine  characters  originally  ascribed  to  monarchs  were  as- 
cribed literally,  we  have  it  in  the  fact  that  there  are  still 
existing  savage  races,  among  whom  it  is  held  that  the  chiefs 
and  their  kindred  are  of  celestial  origin,  or,  as  elsewhere, 
that  only  the  chiefs  have  souls.  And  of  course  along  with 
beliefs  of  this  kind,  there  existed  a  belief  in  the  unlimited 
power  of  the  ruler  over  his  subjects — an  absolute  possession 
of  them,  extending  even  to  the  taking  of  their  lives  at  will : 
as  even  still  in  Fiji,  where  a  victim  stands  unbound  to  be 
killed  at  the  word  of  his  chief;  himself  declaring,  "  what- 
ever the  king  says  must  be  done." 

In  times  and  among  races  somewhat  less  barbarous,  we 
find  these  beliefs  a  little  modified.  The  monarch,  instead  of 
being  literally  thought  god  or  demigod,  is  conceived  to  be  a 
man  having  divine  authority,  with  perhaps  more  or  less  of 
divine  nature.     He  retains  however,  as  in  the  East  to  the 


6  RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE. 

present  day,  titles  expressing  his  heavenly  descent  or  rela- 
tionships; and  is  still  sainted  in  forms  and  words  as  humble 
as  those  addressed  to  the  Deity.  While  the  lives  and  prop- 
erties of  his  people,  if  not  practically  so  completely  at  his 
mercy,  are  still  in  theory  supposed  to  be  his. 

Later  in  the  progress  of  civilization,  as  during  the  mid- 
dle ages  in  Europe,  the  current  opinions  respecting  the  rela- 
tionship of  rulers  and  ruled  are  further  changed.  For  the 
theory  of  divine  origin,  there  is  substituted  that  of  divine 
right.  !N"o  longer  god  or  demigod,  or  even  god-descended, 
the  king  is  now  regarded  as  simply  God's  vice-gerent.  The 
obeisances  made  to  him  are  not  so  extreme  in  their  humility; 
and  his  sacred  titles  lose  much  of  their  meaning.  Moreover 
his  authority  ceases  to  be  unlimited.  Subjects  deny  his 
right  to  dispose  at  will  of  their  lives  and  properties;  and 
yield  allegiance  only  in  the  shape  of  obedience  to  his  com- 
mands. 

With  advancing  political  opinion  has  come  still  greater 
restriction  of  imperial  power.  Belief  in  the  supernatural 
character  of  the  ruler,  long  ago  repudiated  by  ourselves  for 
example,  has  left  behind  it  nothing  more  than  the  popular 
tendency  to  ascribe  unusual  goodness,  wisdom,  and  beauty 
to  the  monarch.  Loyalty,  which  originally  meant  implicit 
submission  to  the  king's  will,  now  means  a  merely  nominal 
profession  of  subordination,  and  the  fulfilment  of  certain 
forms  of  respect.  Our  political  practice,  and  our  political 
theory,  alike  utterly  reject  those  regal  prerogatives  which 
once  passed  unquestioned.  By  deposing  some,  and  putting 
others  in  their  places,  we  have  not  only  denied  the  divine 
rights  of  certain  men  to  rule ;  but  we  have  denied  that  they 
have  any  rights  beyond  those  originating  in  the  assent  of  the 
nation.  Though  our  forms  of  speech  and  our  state-docu- 
ments still  assert  the  subjection  of  the  citizens  to  the  ruler, 
our  actual  beliefs  and  our  daily  proceedings  implicitly  assert 
the  contrary.  We  obey  no  laws  save  those  of  our  own  mak- 
ing.    We  have  entirely  divested  the  monarch  of  legislative 


RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE.  7 

power;  and  should  immediately  rebel  against  his  or  her  ex- 
ercise of  such  power,  even  in  matters  of  the  smallest  con- 
cern. In  brief,  the  aboriginal  doctrine  is  all  but  extinct 
among  us. 

Nor  has  the  rejection  of  primitive  political  beliefs,  re- 
sulted only  in  transferring  the  authority  of  an  autocrat  to  a 
representative  body.  The  views  entertained  respecting 
governments  in  general,  of  whatever  form,  are  now  widely 
different  from  those  once  entertained.  Whether  popular  or 
despotic,  governments  were  in  ancient  times  supposed  to 
have  unlimited  authority  over  their  subjects.  Individuals 
existed  for  the  benefit  of  the  State;  not  the  State  for  the 
benefit  of  individuals.  In  our  days,  however,  not  only 
has  the  national  will  been  in  many  cases  substituted  for  the 
will  of  the  king;  but  the  exercise  of  this  national  will  has 
been  restricted  to  a  much  smaller  sphere.  In  England,  for 
instance,  though  there  has  been  established  no  definite  the- 
ory setting  bounds  to  governmental  authority ;  yet,  in  prac- 
tice, sundry  bounds  have  been  set  to  it  which  are  tacitly  rec- 
ognized by  all.  There  is  no  organic  law  formally  declaring 
that  the  legislature  may  not  freely  dispose  of  the  citizen's 
lives,  as  early  kings  did  when  they  sacrificed  hecatombs  of 
victims;  but  were  it  possible  for  our  legislature  to  attempt 
such  a  thing,  its  own  destruction  would  be  the  consequence, 
rather  than  the  destruction  of  citizens.  How  entirely  we 
have  established  the  personal  liberties  of  the  subject  against 
the  invasions  of  State-power,  would  be  quickly  demon- 
strated, were  it  proposed  by  Act  of  Parliament  forcibly  to 
take  possession  of  the  nation,  or  of  any  class,  and  turn  its 
services  to  public  ends;  as  the  services  of  the  people  were 
turned  by  primitive  rulers.  And  should  any  statesman  sug- 
gest a  re-distribution  of  property  such  as  was  sometimes 
made  in  ancient  democratic  communities,  he  would  be  met 
by  a  thousand-tongued  denial  of  imperial  power  over  in- 
dividual possessions.  ~Not  only  in  our  day  have  these 
fundamental  claims  of  the  citizen  been  thus  made  good 


8  RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE. 

against  the  State,  but  sundry  minor  claims  likewise.  Ages 
ago,  laws  regulating  dress  and  mode  of  living  fell  into  dis- 
use; and  any  attempt  to  revive  them  would  prove  the  cur- 
rent opinion  to  be,  that  such  matters  lie  beyond  the  sphere 
of  legal  control.  For  some  centuries  we  have  been  asserting 
in  practice,  and  have  now  established  in  theory,  the  right  of 
every  man  to  choose  his  own  religious  beliefs,  instead  of  re- 
ceiving such  beliefs  on  State-authority.  Within  the  last  few 
generations  we  have  inaugurated  complete  liberty  of  speech, 
in  spite  of  all  legislative  attempts  to  suppress  or  limit  it. 
And  still  more  recently  we  have  claimed  and  finally  ob- 
tained under  a  few  exceptional  restrictions,  freedom  to  trade 
with  whomsoever  we  please.  Thus  our  political  beliefs  are 
widely  different  from  ancient  ones,  not  only  as  to  the  proper 
depositary  of  power  to  be  exercised  over  a  nation,  but  also 
as  to  the  extent  of  that  power. 

Xot  even  here  has  the  change  ended.  Besides  the  aver- 
age opinions  which  we  have  just  described  as  current  among 
ourselves,  there  exists  a  less  widely-diffused  opinion  going 
still  further  in  the  same  direction.  There  are  to  be  found 
men  who  contend  that  the  sphere  of  government  should  be 
narrowed  even  more  than  it  is  in  England.  The  modern 
doctrine  that  the  State  exists  for  the  benefit  of  citizens, 
which  has  now  in  a  great  measure  supplanted  the  ancient 
doctrine  that  the  citizens  exist  for  the  benefit  of  the  State, 
they  would  push  to  its  logical  results.  They  hold  that  the 
freedom  of  the  individual,  limited  only  by  the  like  freedom 
of  other  individuals,  is  sacred ;  and  that  the  legislature  can- 
not equitably  put  further  restrictions  upon  it,  either  by  for- 
bidding any  actions  which  the  law  of  equal  freedom  permits, 
or  taking  away  any  property  save  that  required  to  pay  the 
cost  of  enforcing  this  law  itself.  They  assert  that  the  sole 
function  of  the  State  is  the  protection  of  persons  against 
each  other,  and  against  a  foreign  foe.  They  urge  that  as, 
throughout  civilization,  the  manifest  tendency  has  been 
continually  to  extend  the  liberties  of  the  subject,  and  re- 


RELIGION  AND   SCIENCE.  9 

strict  the  functions  of  the  State,  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  ultimate  political  condition  must  be  one  in  which 
personal  freedom  is  the  greatest  possible  and  governmental 
power  the  least  possible:  that,  namely,  in  which  the  free- 
dom of  each  has  no  limit  but  the  like  freedom  of  all ;  while 
the  sole  governmental  duty  is  the  maintenance  of  this  limit. 
Here  then  in  different  times  and  places  we  find  concern- 
ing the  origin,  authority,  and  functions  of  government, 
a  great  variety  of  opinions — opinions  of  which  the  leading 
genera  above  indicated  subdivide  into  countless  species. 
What  now  must  be  said  about  the  truth  or  falsity  of  these 
opinions?  Save  among  a  few  barbarous  tribes  the  notion 
that  a  monarch  is  a  god  or  demigod  is  regarded  throughout 
the  world  as  an  absurdity  almost  passing  the  bounds  of 
human  credulity.  In  but  few  places  does  there  survive  a 
vague  notion  that  the  ruler  possesses  any  supernatural  at- 
tributes. Most  civilized  communities,  which  still  admit  the 
divine  right  of  governments,  have  long  since  repudiated  the 
divine  right  of  kings.  Elsewhere  the  belief  that  there  is 
anything  sacred  in  legislative  regulations  is  dying  out :  laws 
are  coming  to  be  considered  as  conventional  only.  While 
the  extreme  school  holds  that  governments  have  neither  in- 
trinsic authority,  nor  can  have  authority  given  to  them  by 
convention;  but  can  possess  authority  only  as  the  adminis- 
trators of  those  moral  principles  deducible  from  the  condi- 
tions essential  to  social  life.  Of  these  various  beliefs,  with 
their  innumerable  modifications,  must  we  then  say  that  some 
one  alone  is  wholly  right  and  all  the  rest  wholly  wrong ;  or 
must  we  say  that  each  of  them  contains  truth  more  or  less 
completely  disguised  by  errors?  The  latter  alternative  is 
the  one  which  analysis  will  force  upon  us.  Ridiculous  as 
they  may  severally  appear  to  those  not  educated  under  them, 
every  one  of  these  doctrines  has  for  its  vital  element  the  rec- 
ognition of  an  unquestionable  fact.  Directly  or  by  impli- 
cation, each  of  them  insists  on  a  certain  subordination  of 
individual  actions  to  social  requirements.  There  are  wide 
3 


10  RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE. 

differences  as  to  the  power  to  which  this  subordination  is 
due ;  there  are  wide  differences  as  to  the  motive  for  this  sub- 
ordination; there  are  wide  differences  as  to  its  extent;  but 
that  there  must  be  some  subordination  all  are  agreed.  From 
the  oldest  and  rudest  idea  of  allegiance,  down  to  the  most 
advanced  political  theory  of  our  own  day,  there  is  on  this 
point  complete  unanimity.  Though,  between  the  savage 
who  conceives  his  life  and  property  to  be  at  the  absolute  dis- 
posal of  his  chief,  and  the  anarchist  who  denies  the  right  of 
any  government,  autocratic  or  democratic,  to  trench  upon 
his  individual  freedom,  there  seems  at  first  sight  an  entire 
and  irreconcilable  antagonism;  yet  ultimate  analysis  dis- 
closes in  them  this  fundamental  community  of  opinion; 
that  there  are  limits  which  individual  actions  may  not  trans- 
gress— limits  which  the  one  regards  as  originating  in  the 
king's  will,  and  which  the  other  regards  as  deducible  from 
the  equal  claims  of  fellow-citizens. 

It  may  perhaps  at  first  sight  seem  that  we  here  reach  a 
very  unimportant  conclusion;  namely,  that  a  certain  tacit 
assumption  is  equally  implied  in  all  these  conflicting  politi- 
cal creeds — an  assumption  which  is  indeed  of  self-evident 
validity.  The  question,  however,  is  not  the  value  or  nov- 
elty of  the  particular  truth  in  this  case  arrived  at.  My  aim 
has  been  to  exhibit  the  more  general  truth,  which  we  are  apt 
to  overlook,  that  between  the  most  opposite  beliefs  there  is 
usually  something  in  common, — something  taken  for 
granted  by  each;  and  that  this  something,  if  not  to  be  set 
down  as  an  unquestionable  verity,  may  yet  be  considered  to 
have  the  highest  degree  of  probability.  A  postulate  which, 
like  the  one  above  instanced,  is  not  consciously  asserted  but 
unconsciously  involved;  and  which  is  unconsciously  in- 
volved not  by  one  man  or  body  of  men,  but  by  numerous 
bodies  of  men  who  diverge  in  countless  ways  and  degrees  in 
the  rest  of  their  beliefs ;  has  a  warrant  far  transcending  any 
that  can  be  usually  shown.  And  when,  as  in  this  case,  the 
postulate  is  abstract — is  not  based  on  some  one  concrete  ex- 


RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE.  H 

perience  common  to  all  mankind,  but  implies  an  induction 
from  a  great  variety  of  experiences,  we  may  say  that  it 
ranks  next  in  certainty  to  the  postulates  of  exact  science. 

Do  we  not  thus  arrive  at  a  generalization  which  may 
habitually  guide  us  when  seeking  for  the  soul  of  truth  in 
things  erroneous?  While  the  foregoing  illustration  brings 
clearly  home  the  fact,  that  in  opinions  seeming  to  be  abso- 
lutely and  supremely  wrong  something  right  is  yet  to  be 
found;  it  also  indicates  the  method  we  should  pursue  in 
seeking  the  something  right.  This  method  is  to  compare 
all  opinions  of  the  same  genus;  to  set  aside  as  more  or  less 
discrediting  one  another  those  various  special  and  concrete 
elements  in  which  such  opinions  disagree;  to  observe  what 
remains  after  the  discordant  constituents  have  been  elimi- 
nated; and  to  find  for  this  remaining  constituent  that  ab- 
stract expression  which  holds  true  throughout  its  divergent 
modifications. 

§  3.  A  candid  acceptance  of  this  general  principle  and 
an  adoption  of  the  course  it  indicates,  will  greatly  aid  us  in 
dealing  with  those  chronic  antagonisms  by  which  men  are 
divided.  Applying  it  not  only  to  current  ideas  with  which 
we  are  personally  unconcerned,  but  also  to  our  own  ideas 
and  those  of  our  opponents,  we  shall  be  led  to  form  far  more 
correct  judgments.  We  shall  be  ever  ready  to  suspect  that 
the  convictions  we  entertain  are  not  wholly  right,  and  that 
the  adverse  convictions  are  not  wholly  wrong.  On  the  one 
hand  we  shall  not,  in  common  with  the  great  mass  of  the 
unthinking,  let  our  beliefs  be  determined  by  the  mere  acci- 
dent of  birth  in  a  particular  age  on  a  particular  part  of  the 
Earth's  surface;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  we  shall  be  saved 
from  that  error  of  entire  and  contemptuous  negation,  which 
is  fallen  into  by  most  who  take  up  an  attitude  of  independ- 
ent criticism. 

Of  all  antagonisms  of  belief,  the  oldest,  the  widest,  the 
most  profound  and  the  most  important,  is  that  between  Ee- 


12  RELIGION  AND   SCIENCE. 

ligion  and  Science.  It  commenced  when  the  recognition  of 
the  simplest  uniformities  in  surrounding  things,  set  a  limit 
to  the  once  universal  superstition.  It  shows  itself  every- 
where throughout  the  domain  of  human  knowledge:  affect- 
ing men's  interpretations  alike  of  the  simplest  mechanical 
accidents  and  of  the  most  complicated  events  in  the  histories 
of  nations.  It  has  its  roots  deep  down  in  the  diverse  habits 
of  thought  of  different  orders  of  minds.  And  the  conflicting 
conceptions  of  nature  and  life  which  these  diverse  habits  of 
thought  severally  generate,  influence  for  good  or  ill  the  tone 
of  feeling  and  the  daily  conduct. 

An  unceasing  battle  of  opinion  like  this  which  has  been 
carried  on  throughout  all  ages  under  the  banners  of  Relig- 
ion and  Science,  has  of  course  generated  an  animosity  fatal 
to  a  just  estimate  of  either  party  by  the  other.  On  a  larger 
scale,  and  more  intensely  than  any  other  controversy,  has  it 
illustrated  that  perennially  significant  fable  concerning  the 
knights  who  fought  about  the  colour  of  a  shield  of  which 
neither  looked  at  more  than  one  face.  Each  combatant  see- 
ing clearly  his  own  aspect  of  the  question,  has  charged  his 
opponent  with  stupidity  or  dishonesty  in  not  seeing  the  same 
aspect  of  it;  while  each  has  wanted  the  candour  to  go  over 
to  his  opponent's  side  and  find  out  how  it  was  that  he  saw 
every  tiling  so  differently. 

Happily  the  times  display  an  increasing  catholicity  of 
feeling,  which  we  shall  do  well  in  carrying  as  far  as  our  na- 
tures permit.  In  proportion  as  we  love  truth  more  and  vic- 
tory less,  we  shall  become  anxious  to  know  what  it  is  which 
leads  our  opponents  to  think  as  they  do.  We  shall  begin 
to  suspect  that  the  pertinacity  of  belief  exhibited  by  them 
must  result  from  a  perception  of  something  we  have  not  per- 
ceived. And  we  shall  aim  to  supplement  the  portion  of 
truth  we  have  found  with  the  portion  found  by  them.  Mak- 
ing a  more  rational  estimate  of  human  authority,  we  shall 
avoid  alike  the  extremes  of  undue  submission  and  undue  re- 
bellion— shall  not  regard  some  men's  judgments  as  wholly 


RELIGION   AND  SCIENCE.  13 

good  and  others  as  wholly  bad ;  but  shall  rather  lean  to  the 
more  defensible  position  that  none  are  completely  right  and 
none  are  completely  wrong. 

Preserving,  as  far  as  may  be,  this  impartial  attitude,  let 
us  then  contemplate  the  two  sides  of  this  great  controversy. 
Keeping  guard  against  the  bias  of  education  and  shutting 
out  the  whisperings  of  sectarian  feeling,  let  us  consider  what 
are  the  d  priori  probabilities  in  favour  of  each  party. 

§  4.  When  duly  realized,  the  general  principle  above 
illustrated  must  lead  us  to  anticipate  that  the  diverse  forms 
of  religious  belief  which  have  existed  and  which  still  exist, 
have  all  a  basis  in  some  ultimate  fact.  Judging  by  analogy 
the  implication  is,  not  that  any  one  of  them  is  altogether 
right ;  but  that  in  each  there  is  something  right  more  or  less 
disguised  by  other  things  wrong.  It  may  be  that  the  soul 
of  truth  contained  in  erroneous  creeds  is  very  unlike  most,  if 
not  all,  of  its  several  embodiments;  and  indeed,  if,  as  we 
have  good  reason  to  expect,  it  is  much  more  abstract  than 
any  of  them,  its  unlikeness  necessarily  follows.  But  how- 
ever different  from  its  concrete  expressions,  some  essential 
verity  must  be  looked  for.  To  suppose  that  these  multi- 
form conceptions  should  be  one  and  all  absolutely  ground- 
less, discredits  too  profoundly  that  average  human  intel- 
ligence from  which  all  our  individual  intelligences  are 
inherited. 

This  most  general  reason  we  shall  find  enforced  by  other 
more  special  ones.  To  the  presumption  that  a  number  of 
diverse  beliefs  of  the  same  class  have  some  common  founda- 
tion in  fact,  must  in  this  case  be  added  a  further  presump- 
tion derived  from  the  omnipresence  of  the  beliefs.  Reli- 
gions ideas  of  one  kind  or  other  are  almost  universal.  Ad- 
mitting that  in  many  places  there  are  tribes  who  have  no 
theory  of  creation,  no  word  for  a  deity,  no  propitiatory  acts, 
no  idea  of  another  life — admitting  that  only  when  a  certain 
phase  of  intelligence  is  reached  do  the  most  rudimentary 


14  RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE. 

of  such  theories  make  their  appearance;  the  implication  is 
practically  the  same.  Grant  that  among  all  races  who  have 
passed  a  certain  stage  of  intellectual  development  there  are 
found  vague  notions  concerning  the  origin  and  hidden  na- 
ture of  surrounding  things;  and  there  arises  the  inference 
that  such  notions  are  necessary  products  of  progressing 
intelligence.  Their  endless  variety  serves  but  to  strengthen 
this  conclusion:  showing  as  it  does  a  more  or  less  inde- 
pendent genesis — showing  how,  in  different  places  and 
times,  like  conditions  have  led  to  similar  trains  of  thought, 
ending  in  analogous  results.  That  these  countless  different, 
and  yet  allied,  phenomena  presented  by  all  religions  are 
accidental  or  factitious,  is  an  untenable  supposition.  A 
candid  examination  of  the  evidence  quite  negatives  the  doc- 
trine maintained  by  some,  that  creeds  are  priestly  inven- 
tions. Even  as  a  mere  question  of  probabilities  it  cannot 
rationally  be  concluded  that  in  every  society,  past  and  pres- 
ent, savage  and  civilized,  certain  members  of  the  commu- 
nity have  combined  to  delude  the  rest,  in  ways  so  analogous. 
To  any  who  may  allege  that  some  primitive  fiction  was  de- 
vised by  some  primitive  priesthood,  before  yet  mankind  had 
diverged  from  a  common  centre,  a  reply  is  furnished  by 
philology;  for  philology  proves  the  dispersion  of  mankind 
to  have  commenced  before  there  existed  a  language  suffi- 
ciently organized  to  express  religious  ideas.  Moreover, 
were  it  otherwise  tenable,  the  hypothesis  of  artificial  origin 
fails  to  account  for  the  facts,.  It  does  not  explain  why, 
under  all  changes  of  form,  certain  elements  of  religious  be- 
lief remain  constant.  It  does  not  show  us  how  it  happens 
that  while  adverse  criticism  has  from  age  to  age  gone  on 
destroying  particular  theological  dogmas,  it  has  not  de- 
stroyed the  fundamental  conception  underlying  these  dog- 
mas. It  leaves  us  without  any  solution  of  the  striking 
circumstance  that  when,  from  the  absurdities  and  corrup- 
tions accumulated  around  them,  national  creeds  have  fallen 
into  general  discredit,  ending  in  indifferentisni  or  positive 


RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE.  15 

denial,  there  has  always  by  and  by  arisen  a  re-assertion  of 
them:  if  not  the  same  in  form,  still  the  same  in  essence. 
Thus  the  universality  of  religious  ideas,  their  independent 
evolution  among  different  primitive  races,  and  their  great 
vitality,  unite  in  showing  that  their  source  must  be  deep- 
seated  instead  of  superficial.  In  other  words,  we  are  obliged 
to  admit  that  if  not  supernaturally  derived  as  the  majority 
contend,  they  must  be  derived  out  of  human  experiences, 
slowly  accumulated  and  organized. 

Should  it  be  asserted  that  religious  ideas  are  products  of 
the  religious  sentiment,  which,  to  satisfy  itself,  prompts 
imaginations  that  it  afterwards  projects  into  the  external 
world,  and  by  and  by  mistakes  for  realities;  the  problem  is 
not  solved,  but  only  removed  further  back.  Whether  the 
wish  is  father  to  the  thought,  or  whether  sentiment  and  idea 
have  a  common  genesis,  there  equally  arises  the  question — 
Whence  comes  the  sentiment?  That  it  is  a  constituent  in 
man's  nature  is  implied  by  the  hypothesis;  and  cannot  in- 
deed be  denied  by  those  who  prefer  other  hypotheses.  And 
if  the  religious  sentiment,  displayed  habitually  by  the  ma- 
jority of  mankind,  and  occasionally  aroused  even  in  those 
seemingly  devoid  of  it,  must  be  classed  among  human  emo- 
tions, we  cannot  rationally  ignore  it.  We  are  bound  to  ask 
its  origin  and  its  function.  H3re  is  an  attribute  which,  to 
say  the  least,  has  had  an  enormous  influence — which  has 
played  a  conspicuous  part  throughout  the  entire  past  as  far 
back  as  history  records,  and  is  at  present  the  life  of  numer- 
ous institutions,  the  stimulus  to  perpetual  controversies,  and 
the  prompter  of  countless  daily  actions.  Any  Theory  of 
Things  which  takes  no  account  of  this  attribute,  must,  then, 
be  extremely  defective.  If  with  no  other  view,  still  as  a 
question  in  philosophy,  we  are  called  on  to  say  what  this 
attribute  means;  and  we  cannot  decline  the  task  without 
confessing  our  philosophy  to  be  incompetent. 

Two  suppositions  only  are  open  to  us:  the  one  that  the 
feeling  which  responds  to  religious  ideas  resulted,  along 


16  RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE. 

with  all  other  human  faculties,  from  an  act  of  special  crea- 
tion; the  other  that  it,  in  common, with  the  rest,  arose  by  a 
process  of  evolution.  If  we  adopt  the  first  of  these  alterna- 
tives, universally  accepted  by  our  ancestors  and  by  the  im- 
mense majority  of  our  contemporaries,  the  matter  is  at  once 
settled:  man  is  directly  endowed  with  the  religious  feeling 
by  a  creator;  and  to  that  creator  it  designedly  responds. 
If  we  adopt  the  second  alternative,  then  we  are  met  by  the 
questions — What  are  the  circumstances  to  which  the  genesis 
of  the  religious  feeling  is  due  ?  and — What  is  its  office  ?  We 
are  bound  to  entertain  these  questions;  and  we  are  bound 
to  find  answers  to  them.  Considering  all  faculties,  as  we 
must  on  this  supposition,  to  result  from  accumulated  modifi- 
cations caused  by  the  intercourse  of  the  organism  with  its 
environment,  we  are  obliged  to  admit  that  there  exist  in  the 
environment  certain  phenomena  or  conditions  which  have 
determined  the  growth  of  the  feeling  in  question;  and  so 
are  obliged  to  admit  that  it  is  as  normal  as  any  other  faculty. 
Add  to  which  that  as,  on  the  hypothesis  of  a  development  of 
lower  forms  into  higher,  the  end  toward  which  the  pro- 
gressive changes  directly  or  indirectly  tend,  must  be  adapta- 
tion to  the  requirements  of  existence ;  we  are  also  forced  to 
infer  that  this  feeling  is  in  some  way  conducive  to  human 
welfare.  Thus  both  alternatives  contain  the  same  ultimate 
implication.  We  must  conclude  that  the  religious  sentiment 
is  either  directly  created,  or  is  cieated  by  the  slow  action  of 
natural  causes;  and  whichever  of  these  conclusions  we 
adopt,  requires  us  to  treat  the  religious  sentiment  with  re- 
spect. 

One  other  consideration  should  not  be  overlooked — a 
consideration  which  students  of  Science  more  especially 
need  to  have  pointed  out.  Occupied  as  such  are  with  estab- 
lished truths,  and  accustomed  to  regard  things  not  already 
known  as  things  to  be  hereafter  discovered,  they  are  liable 
to  forget  that  information,  however  extensive  it  may  be- 
come, can  never  satisfy  inquiry.     Positive  knowledge  does 


RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE.  17 

not,  and  never  can,  fill  the  whole  region  of  possible  thought. 
At  the  uttermost  reach  of  discovery  there  arises,  and  must 
ever  arise,  the  question — What  lies  beyond?  As  it  is  im- 
possible to  think  of  a  limit  to  space  so  as  to  exclude  the  idea 
of  space  lying  outside  that  limit;  so  we  cannot  conceive  of 
any  explanation  profound  enough  to  exclude  the  question — 
What  is  the  explanation  of  that  explanation?  Regarding 
Science  as  a  gradually  increasing  sphere,  we  may  say  that 
every  addition  to  its  surface  does  but  bring  it  into  a  wider 
contact  with  surrounding  nescience.  There  must  ever  re- 
main therefore  two  antithetical  modes  of  mental  action. 
Throughout  all  future  time,  as  now,  the  human  mind  may 
occupy  itself,  not  only  with  ascertained  phenomena  and 
their  relations,  but  also  with  that  unascertained  some- 
thing which  phenomena  and  their  relations  imply.  Hence 
if  knowledge  cannot  monopolize  consciousness — if  it 
must  always  continue  possible  for  the  mind  to  dwell 
upon  that  which  transcends  knowledge  ;  then  there 
can  never  cease  to  be  a  place  for  something  of  the 
nature  of  Religion  ;  since  Religion  under  all  its  forms 
is  distinguished  from  everything  else  in  this,  that  its 
subject  matter  is  that  which  passes  the  sphere  of  ex- 
perience. 

Thus,  however  untenable  may  be  any  or  all  the  existing 
religious  creeds,  however  gross  the  absurdities  associated 
with  them,  however  irrational  the  arguments  set  forth  in 
their  defence,  we  must  not  ignore  the  verity  which  in  all 
likelihood  lies  hidden  within  them.  The  general  probabil- 
ity that  widely-spread  beliefs  are  not  absolutely  baseless,  is 
in  this  case  enforced  by  further  probability  due  to  the  omni- 
presence of  the  beliefs.  In  the  existence  of  a  religious  sen- 
timent, whatever  be  its  origin,  we  have  a  second  evidence 
of  great  significance.  And  as  in  that  nescience  which  must 
ever  remain  the  antithesis  to  science,  there  is  a  sphere  for 
the  exercise  of  this  sentiment,  we  find  a  third  general  fact 
of  like  implication.     We  may  be  sure  therefore  that  re- 


18  RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE. 

ligions,  though  even  none  of  them  be  actually  true,  are  yet 
all  adumbrations  of  a  truth. 

§  5.  As,  to  the  religious,  it  will  seem  absurd  to  set  forth 
any  justification  for  Religion;  so,  to  the  scientific,  will  it 
seem  absurd  to  defend  Science.  Yet  to  do  the  last  is  cer- 
tainly as  needful  as  to  do  the  first.  If  there  exists  a  class 
who,  in  contempt  of  its  follies  and  disgust  at  its  corruptions, 
have  contracted  towards  Religion  a  repugnance  which 
makes  them  overlook  the  fundamental  verity  contained  in 
it;  so,  too,  is  there  a  class  offended  to  such  a  degree  by  the  de- 
structive criticisms  men  of  science  make  on  the  religious  ten- 
ets they  regard  as  essential,  that  they  have  acquired  a  strong 
prejudice  against  Science  in  general.  They  are  not  pre- 
pared with  any  avowed  reasons  for  their  dislike.  They 
have  simply  a  remembrance  of  the  rude  shakes  which  Sci- 
ence has  given  to  many  of  their  cherished  convictions,  and 
a  suspicion  that  it  may  perhaps  eventually  uproot  all  they 
regard  as  sacred;  and  hence  it  produces  in  them  a  certain 
inarticulate  dread. 

What  is  Science?  To  see  the  absurdity  of  the  prejudice 
against  it,  we  need  only  remark  that  Science  is  simply  a 
higher  development  of  common  knowledge;  and  that  if 
Science  is  repudiated,  all  knowledge  must  be  repudiated 
along  with  it.  The  extremest  bigot  will  not  suspect  any 
harm  in  the  observation  that  the  sun  rises  earlier  and  sets 
later  in  the  summer  than  in  the  winter;  but  will  rather 
consider  such  an  observation  as  a  useful  aid  in  fulfilling  the 
duties  of  life.  Well,  Astronomy  is  an  organized  body  of 
similar  observations,  made  with  greater  nicety,  extended  to 
a  larger  number  of  objects,  and  so  analyzed  as  to  disclose  the 
real  arrangements  of  the  heavens,  and  to  dispel  our  false 
conceptions  of  them.  That  iron  will  rust  in  water,  that 
wood  will  burn,  that  long  kept  viands  become  putrid,  the 
most  timid  sectarian  will  teach  without  alarm,  as  things  use- 
ful to  be  known.    But  these  are  chemical  truths:  Chemis- 


RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE.  19 

try  is  a  systematized  collection  of  such  facts,  ascertained 
with  precision,  and  so  classified  and  generalized  as  to  enable 
us  to  say  with  certainty,  concerning  each  simple  or  com- 
pound substance,  what  change  will  occur  in- it  under  given 
conditions.  And  thus  is  it  with  all  the  sciences.  They  sev- 
erally germinate  out  of  the  experiences  of  daily  life;  insen- 
sibly as  they  grow  they  draw  in  remoter,  more  numerous, 
and  more  complex  experiences;  and  among  these,  they  as- 
certain laws  of  dependence  like  those  which  make  up  our 
knowledge  of  the  most  familiar  objects.  Nowhere  is  it  pos- 
sible to  draw  a  line  and  say — here  Science  begins.  And  as 
it  is  the  function  of  common  observation  to  serve  for  the 
guidance  of  conduct;  so,  too,  is  the  guidance  of  conduct 
the  office  of  the  most  recondite  and  abstract  inquiries  of 
Science.  Through  the  countless  industrial  processes  and 
the  various  modes  of  locomotion  which  it  has  given  to  us, 
Physics  regulates  more  completely  our  social  life  than  does 
his  acquaintance  with  the  properties  of  surrounding  bodies 
regulate  the  life  of  the  savage.  Anatomy  and  Physiology, 
through  their  effects  on  the  practice  of  medicine  and  hy- 
giene, modify  our  actions  almost  as  much  as  does  our  ac- 
quaintance with  the  evils  and  benefits  which  common  en- 
vironing agencies  may  produce  on  our  bodies.  All  Science 
is  prevision;  and  all  prevision  ultimately  aids  us  in  greater 
or  less  degree  to  achieve  the  good  and  avoid  the  bad.  As 
certainly  as  the  perception  of  an  object  lying  in  our  path 
warns  us  against  stumbling  over  it;  so  certainly  do  those 
more  complicated  and  subtle  perceptions  which  constitute 
Science,  warn  us  against  stumbling  over  intervening  ob- 
stacles in  the  pursuit  of  our  distant  ends.  Thus  being  one 
in  origin  and  function,  the  simplest  forms  of  cognition  and 
the  most  complex  must  be  dealt  with  alike.  We  are  bound 
in  consistency  to  receive  the  widest  knowledge  which  our 
faculties  can  reach,  or  to  reject  along  with  it  that  narrow 
knowledge  possessed  by  all.  There  is  no  logical  alternative 
between  accepting  our  intelligence  in  its  entirety,  or  re- 


20  RELIGION  AND   SCIENCE. 

pudiating  even  that  lowest  intelligence  which  we  possess  in 
common  with  brutes. 

To  ask  the  question  which  more  immediately  concerns 
our  arguments- whether  Science  is  substantially  true? — is 
much  like  asking  whether  the  sun  gives  light.  And  it  is  be- 
cause they  are  conscious  how  undeniably  valid  are  most  of 
its  propositions,  that  the  theological  party  regard  Science 
with  so  much  secret  alarm.  They  know  that  during  the  two 
thousand  years  of  its  growth,  some  of  its  larger  divisions — 
mathematics,  physics,  astronomy — have  been  subject  to  the 
rigorous  criticism  of  successive  generations;  and  have  not- 
withstanding become  ever  more  firmly  established.  They 
know  that,  unlike  many  of  their  own  doctrines,  which  were 
once  universally  received  but  have  age  by  age  been  more 
frequently  called  in  question,  the  doctrines  of  Science,  at 
first  confined  to  a  few  scattered  inquirers,  have  been  slowly 
growing  into  general  acceptance,  and  are  now  in  great  part 
admitted  as  beyond  dispute.  They  know  that  men  of  sci- 
ence throughout  the  world  subject  each  other's  results  to  the 
most  searching  examination;  and  that  error  is  mercilessly 
exposed  and  rejected  as  soon  as  discovered.  And,  finally, 
they  know  that  still  more  conclusive  testimony  is  to  be 
found  in  the  daily  verification  of  scientific  predictions,  and 
in  the  never-ceasing  triumphs  of  those  arts  which  Science 
guides. 

To  regard  with  alienation  that  which  has  such  high 
credentials  is  a  folly.  Though  in  the  tone  which  many  of 
the  scientific  adopt  towards  them,  the  defenders  of  Religion 
may  find  some  excuse  for  this  alienation ;  yet  the  excuse  is  a 
very  insufficient  one.  On  the  side  of  Science,  as  on  their 
own  side,  they  must  admit  that  short-comings  in  the  advo- 
cates do  not  tell  essentially  against  that  which  is  advocated. 
Science  must  be  judged  by  itself:  and  so  judged,  only  the 
most  perverted  intellect  can  fail  to  see  that  it  is  worthy  of  all 
reverence.  Be  there  or  be  there  not  any  other  revelation, 
wTe  have  a  veritable  revelation  in  Science — a  continuous  dis- 


RELIGION  AND   SCIENCE.  21 

closure,  through  the  intelligence  with  which  we  are  en- 
dowed, of  the  established  order  of  the  Universe.  This  dis- 
closure it  is  the  duty  of  every  one  to  verify  as  far  as  in  him 
lies;  and  having  verified,  to  receive  with  all  humility. 

§  6.  On  both  sides  of  this  great  controversy,  then,  truth 
must  exist.  An  unbiassed  consideration  of  its  general  as- 
pects forces  us  to  conclude  that  Religion,  everywhere  pres- 
ent as  a  weft  running  through  the  warp  of  human  history, 
expresses  some  eternal  fact ;  while  it  is  almost  a  truism  to  say 
of  Science  that  it  is  an  organized  mass  of  facts,  ever  grow- 
ing, and  ever  being  more  completely  purified  from  errors. 
And  if  both  have  bases  in  the  reality  of  things,  then  be- 
tween them  there  must  be  a  fundamental  harmony.  It  is 
an  incredible  hypothesis  that  there  are  two  orders  of  truth, 
in  absolute  and  everlasting  opposition.  Only  on  some 
Manichean  theory,  which  among  ourselves  no  one  dares 
openly  avow  however  much  his  beliefs  may  be  tainted  by  it, 
is  such  a  supposition  even  conceivable.  That  Religion  is 
divine  and  Science  diabolical,  is  a  proposition  which,  though 
implied  in  many  a  clerical  declamation,  not  the  most  vehe- 
ment fanatic  can  bring  himself  distinctly  to  assert.  And 
whoever  does  not  assert  this,  must  admit  that  under  their 
seeming  antagonism  lies  hidden  an  entire  agreement. 

Each  side,  therefore,  has  to  recognize  the  claims  of  the 
other  as  standing  for  truths  that  are  not  to  be  ignored.  He 
who  contemplates  the  Universe  from  the  religious  point  of 
view,  must  learn  to  see  that  this  which  we  call  Science  is  one 
constituent  of  the  great  whole ;  and  as  such  ought  to  be  re- 
garded with  a  sentiment  like  that  which  the  remainder  ex- 
cites. While  he  who  contemplates  the  universe  from  the 
scientific  point  of  view,  must  learn  to  see  that  this  which  we 
call  Religion  is  similarly  a  constituent  of  the  great  whole; 
and  being  such,  must  be  treated  as  a  subject  of  science  with 
no  more  prejudice  than  any  other  reality.  It  behoves  each 
party  to  strive  to  understand  the  other,  with  the  conviction 


22  RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE. 

that  the  other  has  something  worthy  to  be  understood;  and 
with  the  conviction  that  when  mutually  recognized  this 
something  will  be  the  basis  of  a  complete  reconciliation. 

How  to  find  this  something — how  to  reconcile  them, 
thus  becomes  the  problem  which  we  should  perseveringly 
try  to  solve.  Not  to  reconcile  them  in  any  makeshift  way — 
not  to  find  one  of  those  compromises  we  hear  from  time  to 
time  proposed,  which  their  proposers  must  secretly  feel  are 
artificial  and  temporary;  but  to  arrive  at  the  terms  of  a 
real  and  permanent  peace  between  them.  The  thing  we 
have  to  seek  out,  is  that  ultimate  truth  which  both  will  avow 
with  absolute  sincerity — with  not  the  remotest  mental  reser- 
vation. There  shall  be  no  concession — no  yielding  on 
either  side  of  something  that  will  by  and  by  be  reasserted; 
but  the  common  ground  on  which  they  meet  shall  be  one 
which  each  will  maintain  for  itself.  We  have  to  discover 
some  fundamental  verity  which  Eeligion  will  assert,  with 
all  possible  emphasis,  in  the  absence  of  Science;  and  which 
Science,  with  all  possible  emphasis,  will  assert  in  the  absence 
of  Eeligion — some  fundamental  verity  in  the  defence  of 
which  each  will  find  the  other  its  ally. 

Or,  changing  the  point  of  view,  our  aim  must  be  to  co- 
ordinate the  seemingly  opposed  convictions  which  Religion 
and  Science  embody.  From  the  coalescence  of  antagonist 
ideas,  each  containing  its  portion  of  truth,  there  always 
arises  a  higher  development.  As  in  Geology  when  the  igne- 
ous and  aqueous  hypotheses  were  united,  a  rapid  advance 
took  place;  as  in  Biology  we  are  beginning  to  progress 
through  the  fusion  of  the  doctrine  of  types  with  the  doctrine 
of  adaptations;  as  in  Psychology  the  arrested  growth  re- 
commences now  that  the  disciples  of  Kant  and  those  of 
Locke  have  both  their  views  recognized  in  the  theory  that 
organized  experiences  produce  forms  of  thought;  as  in  So- 
ciology, now  that  it  is  beginning  to  assume  a  positive  charac- 
ter, we  find  a  recognition  of  both  the  party  of  progress  and 
the  party  of  order,  as  each  holding  a  truth  which  forms  a 


RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE.  23 

needful  complement  to  that  held  by  the  other;  so  must  it 
be  on  a  grander  scale  with  Religion  and  Science.  Here  too 
we  must  look  for  a  conception  which  combines  the  conclu- 
sions of  both;  and  here  too  wTe  may  expect  important  re- 
sults from  their  combination.  To  understand  how  Science 
and  Religion  express  opposite  sides  of  the  same  fact — the 
one  its  near  or  visible  side,  and  the  other  its  remote  or  invisi- 
ble side — this  it  is  which  we  must  attempt;  and  to  achieve 
this  must  profoundly  modify  our  general  Theory  of  Things. 
Already  in  the  foregoing  pages  the  method  of  seeking 
such  a  reconciliation  has  been  vaguely  foreshadowed.  Be- 
fore proceeding  further,  however,  it  will  be  well  to  treat  the 
question  of  method  more  definitely.  To  find  that  truth  in 
which  Religion  and  Science  coalesce,  we  must  know  in  what 
direction  to  look  for  it,  and  what  kind  of  truth  it  is  likely 
to  be. 

§  7.  We  have  found  a  priori  reason  for  believing  that  in 
all  religions,  even  the  rudest,  there  lies  hidden  a  funda- 
mental verity.  We  have  inferred  that  this  fundamental 
verity  is  that  element  common  to  all  religions,  which  re- 
mains after  their  discordant  peculiarities  have  been  mu- 
tually cancelled.  And  we  have  further  inferred  that  this 
element  is  almost  certain  to  be  more  abstract  than  any  cur- 
rent religious  doctrine.  Now  it  is  manifest  that  only  in 
some  highly  abstract  proposition,  can  Religion  and  Science 
find  a  common  ground.  Neither  such  dogmas  as  those  of 
the  trinitarian  and  unitarian,  nor  any  such  idea  as  that  of 
propitiation,  common  though  it  may  be  to  all  religions,  can 
serve  as  the  desired  basis  of  agreement;  for  Science  cannot 
recognize  beliefs  like  these:  they  lie  beyond  its  sphere. 
Hence  we  see  not  only  that,  judging  by  analogy,  the  essen- 
tial truth  contained  in  Religion  is  that  most  abstract  element 
pervading  all  its  forms ;  but  also  that  this  most  abstract  ele- 
ment is  the  only  one  in  which  Religion  is  likely  to  agree 
with  Science. 


24  RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE. 

Similarly  if  we  begin  at  the  other  end,  and  inquire  what 
scientific  truth  can  unite  Science  and  Religion.  It  is  at  once 
manifest  that  Religion  can  take  no  cognizance  of  special 
scientific  doctrines;  nor  any  more  than  Science  can  take 
cognizance  of  special  religious  doctrines.  The  truth  which 
Science  asserts  and  Religion  indorses  cannot  be  one  fur- 
nished by  mathematics;  nor  can  it  be  a  physical  truth ;  nor 
can  it  be  a  truth  in  chemistry;  it  cannot  be  a  truth  belong- 
ing to  any  particular  science,  ^o  generalization  of  the 
phenomena  of  space,  of  time,  of  matter,  or  of  force,  can  be- 
come a  Religious  conception.  Such  a  conception,  if  it  any- 
where exists  in  Science,  must  be  more  general  than  any  of 
these — must  be  one  underlying  all  of  them.  If  there  be  a 
fact  which  Science  recognizes  in  common  with  Religion,  it 
must  be  that  fact  from  which  the  several  branches  of  Sci- 
ence diverge,  as  from  their  common  root. 

Assuming  then,  that  since  these  two  great  realities  are 
constituents  of  the  same  mind,  and  respond  to  different  as- 
pects of  the  same  Universe,  there  must  be  a  fundamental 
harmony  between  them;  we  see  good  reason  to  conclude 
that  the  most  abstract  truth  contained  in  Religion  and  the 
most  abstract  truth  contained  in  Science  must  be  the  one  in 
which  the  two  coalesce.  The  largest  fact  to  be  found  within 
our  mental  range  must  be  the  one  of  which  we  are  in  search. 
Uniting  these  positive  and  negative  poles  of  human  thought, 
it  must  be  the  ultimate  fact  in  our  intelligence. 

§  8.  Before  proceeding  in  the  search  for  this  common 
datum  let  me  bespeak  a  little  patience.  The  next  three 
chapters,  setting  out  from  different  points  and  converging  to 
the  same  conclusion,  will  be  comparatively  unattractive. 
Students  of  philosophy  will  find  in  them  much  that  is  more 
or  less  familiar ;  and  to  most  of  those  who  are  unacquainted 
with  the  literature  of  modern  metaphysics,  they  may  prove 
somewhat  difficult  to  follow. 

Our  argument  however  cannot  dispense  with  these  chap- 


RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE.  25 

ters;  and  the  greatness  of  the  question  at  issue  justifies  even 
a  heavier  tax  on  the  reader's  attention.  The  matter  is  one 
which  concerns  each  and  all  of  us  more  than  any  other  mat- 
ter whatever.  Though  it  affects  us  little  in  a  direct  way,  the 
view  we  arrive  at  must  indirectly  affect  us  in  all  our  rela- 
tions— must  determine  our  conception  of  the  Universe,  of 
Life,  of  Human  Nature — must  influence  our  ideas  of  right 
and  wrong,  and  so  modify  our  conduct.  To  reach  that  point 
of  view  from  which  the  seeming  discordance  of  Religon  and 
Science  disappears,  and  the  two  merge  into  one,  must  cause 
a  revolution  of  thought  fruitful  in  beneficial  consequences, 
and  must  surely  be  worth  an  effort. 

Here  ending  preliminaries,  let  us  now  address  ourselves 
to  this  all-important  inquiry. 


CHAPTEE  II. 

ULTIMATE    RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

§  9.  When,  on  the  sea-shore,  we  note  how  the  hulls  of 
distant  vessels  are  hidden  below  the  horizon,  and  how,  of 
still  remoter  vessels,  only  the  uppermost  sails  are  visible,  we 
realize  with  tolerable  clearness  the  slight  curvature  of  that 
portion  of  the  sea's  surface  which  lies  before  us.  But  when 
we  seek  in  imagination  to  follow  out  this  curved  surface  as  it 
actually  exists,  slowly  bending  round  until  all  its  meridians 
meet  in  a  point  eight  thousand  miles  below  our  feet,  we  find 
ourselves  utterly  baffled.  We  cannot  conceive  in  its  real 
form  and  magnitude  even  that  small  segment  of  our  globe 
which  extends  a  hundred  miles  on  every  side  of  us;  much 
less  the  globe  as  a  whole.  The  piece  of  rock  on  which  we 
stand  can  be  mentally  represented  with  something  like  com- 
pleteness: we  find  ourselves  able  to  think  of  its  top,  its 
sides,  and  its  under  surface  at  the  same  time ;  or  so  nearly  at 
the  same  time  that  they  seem  all  present  in  consciousness  to- 
gether ;  and  so  we  can  form  what  we  call  a  conception  of  the 
rock.  But  to  do  the  like  with  the  Earth  we  find  impossible. 
If  even  to  imagine  the  antipodes  as  at  that  distant  place  in 
space  which  it  actually  occupies,  is  beyond  our  power; 
much  more  beyond  our  power  must  it  be  at  the  same  time  to 
imagine  all  other  remote  points  on  the  Earth's  surface  as 
in  their  actual  places.  Yet  we  habitually  speak  as  though 
we  had  an  idea  of  the  Earth — as  though  we  could  think  of  it 
in  the  same  way  that  we  think  of  minor  objects. 

What  conception,  then,  do  we  form  of  it?  the  reader 

26 


ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS.  27 

may  ask.  That  its  name  calls  up  in  us  some  state  of  con- 
sciousness is  unquestionable;  and  if  this  state  of  conscious- 
ness is  not  a  conception,  properly  so  called,  what  is  it  ?  The 
answer  seems  to  be  this : — We  have  learnt  by  indirect  meth- 
ods that  the  Earth  is  a  sphere;  we  have  formed  models  ap- 
proximately representing  its  shape  and  the  distribution  of 
its  parts;  generally  when  the  Earth  is  referred  to,  we  either 
think  of  an  indefinitely  extended  mass  beneath  our  feet,  or 
else,  leaving  out  the  actual  Earth,  we  think  of  a  body  like  a 
terrestrial  globe ;  but  when  we  seek  to  imagine  the  Earth  as 
it  really  is,  we  join  these  two  ideas  as  well  as  we  can — such 
perception  as  our  eyes  give  us  of  the  Earth's  surface  we 
couple  with  the  conception  of  a  sphere.  And  thus  we  form 
of  the  Earth,  not  a  conception  properly  so  called,  but  only  a 
symbolic  conception.* 

A  large  proportion  of  our  conceptions,  including  all 
those  of  much  generality,  are  of  this  order.  Great  magni- 
tudes, great  durations,  great  numbers,  are  none  of  them  ac- 
tually conceived,  but  are  all  of  them  conceived  more  or  less 
symbolically;  and  so,  too,  are  all  those  classes  of  objects  of 
which  we  predicate  some  common  fact.  When  mention  is 
made  of  any  individual  man,  a  tolerably  complete  idea  of 
him  is  formed.  If  the  family  he  belongs  to  be  spoken  of, 
probably  but  a  part  of  it  will  be  represented  in  thought: 
under  the  necessity  of  attending  to  that  which  is  said  about 
the  family,  we  realize  in  imagination  only  its  most  important 
or  familiar  members,  and  pass  over  the  rest  with  a  nascent 
consciousness  which  we  know  could,  if  requisite,  be  made 
complete.  Should  something  be  remarked  of  the  class,  say 
farmers,  to  which  this  family  belongs,  we  neither  enumerate 
in  thought  all  the  individuals  contained  in  the  class,  nor  be- 
lieve that  we  could  do  so  if  required;  but  we  are  content 
with  taking  some  few  samples  of  it,  and  remembering  that 
these  could  be  indefinitely  multiplied.      Supposing  the  sub- 

*  Those  who  may  have  before  met  with  this  term,  will  perceive  that  it  is 
here  used  in  quite  a  different  sense. 


28  ULTIMATE   RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

ject  of  which  something  is  predicated  be  Englishmen,  the 
answering  state  of  consciousness  is  a  still  more  inadequate 
representative  of  the  reality.  Yet  more  remote  is  the  like- 
ness of  the  thought  to  the  thing,  if  reference  be  made  to 
Europeans  or  to  human  beings.  And  when  we  come  to 
propositions  concerning  the  mammalia,  or  concerning  the 
whole  of  the  vertebrata,  or  concerning  animals  in  general, 
or  concerning  all  organic  beings,  the  unlikeness  of  our  con- 
ceptions to  the  objects  named  reaches  its  extreme.  Through- 
out which  series  of  instances  we  see,  that  as  the  number  of 
objects  grouped  together  in  thought  increases,  the  concept, 
formed  of  a  few  typical  samples  joined  with  the  notion  of 
multiplicity,  becomes  more  and  more  a  mere  symbol;  not 
only  because  it  gradually  ceases  to  represent  the  size  of  the 
group,  but  also  because  as  the  group  grows  more  hetero- 
geneous, the  typical  samples  thought  of  are  less  like  the 
average  objects  which  the  group  contains. 

This  formation  of  symbolic  conceptions,  which  inevita- 
bly arises  as  we  pass  from  small  and  concrete  objects  to  large 
and  to  discrete  ones,  is  mostly  a  very  useful,  and  indeed  ne- 
cessary, process.  When,  instead  of  things  whose  attributes 
can  be  tolerably  well  united  in  a  single  state  of  conscious- 
ness, we  have  to  deal  with  things  whose  attributes  are  too 
vast  or  numerous  to  be  so  united,  we  must  either  drop  in 
thought  part  of  their  attributes,  or  else  not  think  of  them  at 
all — either  form  a  more  or  less  symbolic  conception,  or  no 
conception.  We  must  predicate  nothing  of  objects  too  great 
or  too  multitudinous  to  be  mentally  represented ;  or  we  must 
make  our  predications  by  the  help  of  extremely  inadequate 
representations  of  such  objects — mere  symbols  of  them. 

But  while  by  this  process  alone  we  are  enabled  to  form 
general  propositions,  and  so  to  reach  general  conclusions,  we 
are  by  this  process  perpetually  led  into  danger,  and  very 
often  into  error.  We  habitually  mistake  our  symbolic  con- 
ceptions for  real  ones;  and  so  are  betrayed  into  countless 
false  inferences.     Xot  only  is  it  that  in  proportion  as  the 


ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS.  29 

concept  we  form  of  any  thing  or  class  of  things,  misrepre- 
sents the  reality,  we  are  apt  to  be  wrong  in  any  assertion  we 
make  respecting  the  reality ;  but  it  is  that  we  are  led  to  sup- 
pose we  have  truly  conceived  a  great  variety  of  things  which 
we  have  conceived  only  in  this  fictitious  way ;  and  further  to 
confound  with  these  certain  things  which  cannot  be  con- 
ceived in  any  way.  How  almost  unavoidably  we  fall  into 
this  error  it  will  be  needful  here  to  observe. 

From  objects  readily  representable  in  their  totality,  to 
those  of  which  we  cannot  form  even  an  approximate  repre- 
sentation, there  is  an  insensible  transition.  Between  a  peb- 
ble and  the  entire  Earth  a  series  of  magnitudes  might  be  in- 
troduced, each  of  which  differed  from  the  adjacent  ones  so 
slightly  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  say  at  what  point  in 
the  series  our  conceptions  of  them  became  inadequate. 
Similarly,  there  is  a  gradual  progression  from  those  groups 
of  a  few  individuals  which  we  can  think  of  as  groups  with 
tolerable  completeness,  to  those  larger  and  larger  groups 
of  which  we  can  form  nothing  like  true  ideas.  Whence  it  is 
manifest  that  we  pass  from  actual  conceptions  to  symbolic 
ones  by  infinitesimal  steps.  Note  next  that  we  are  led  to 
deal  with  our  symbolic  conceptions  as  though  they  were  ac- 
tual ones,  not  only  because  we  cannot  clearly  separate  the 
two,  but  also  because,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  the  first 
serve  our  purposes  nearly  or  quite  as  well  as  the  last — are 
simply  the  abbreviated  signs  we  substitute  for  those 
more  elaborate  signs  which  are  our  equivalents  for 
real  objects.  Those  very  imperfect  representations  of  ordi- 
nary things  which  we  habitually  make  in  thinking,  we  know 
can  be  developed  into  adequate  ones  if  needful.  Those  con- 
cepts of  larger  magnitudes  and  more  extensive  classes 
which  we  cannot  make  adequate,  we  still  find  can  be  veri- 
fied by  some  indirect  process  of  measurement  or  enumera- 
tion. And  even  in  the  case  of  such  an  utterly  inconceivable 
object  as  the  Solar  System,  we  yet,  through  the  fulfil- 
ment of  predictions  founded  on  our  symbolic  conception  of 


30  ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

it,  gain  the  conviction  that  this  symbolic  conception  stands 
for  an  actual  existence,  and,  in  a  sense,  truly  expresses  cer- 
tain of  its  constituent  relations.  Thus  our  symbolic  concep- 
tions being  in  the  majority  of  cases  capable  of  development 
into  complete  ones,  and  in  most  other  cases  serving  as  steps 
to  conclusions  which  are  proved  valid  by  their  correspond- 
ence with  observation,  we  acquire  a  confirmed  habit  of  deal- 
ing with  them  as  true  conceptions — as  real  representations 
of  actualities.  Learning  by  long  experience  that  they  can, 
if  needful,  be  verified,  we  are  led  habitually  to  accept  them 
without  verification.  And  thus  we  open  the  door  to  some 
which  profess  to  stand  for  known  things,  but  which  really 
stand  for  things  that  cannot  be  known  in  any  way. 

To  sum  up,  we  must  say  of  conceptions  in  general,  that 
they  are  complete  only  when  the  attributes  of  the  object 
conceived  are  of  such  number  and  kind  that  they  can  be 
represented  in  consciousness  so  nearly  at  the  same  time  as  to 
seem  all  present  together;  that  as  the  objects  conceived  be- 
come larger  and  more  complex,  some  of  the  attributes  first 
thought  of  fade  from  consciousness  before  the  rest  have 
been  represented,  and  the  conception  thus  becomes  imper- 
fect ;  that  when  the  size,  complexity,  or  discreteness  of  the 
object  conceived  becomes  very  great,  only  a  small  portion 
of  its  attributes  can  be  thought  of  at  once,  and  the  concep- 
tion formed  of  it  thus  becomes  so  inadequate  as  to  be  a  mere 
symbol;  that  nevertheless  such  symbolic  conceptions,  which 
are  indispensable  in  general  thinking,  are  legitimate,  pro- 
vided that  by  some  cumulative  or  indirect  process  of 
thought,  or  by  the  fulfilment  of  predictions  based  on  them, 
we  can  assure  ourselves  that  they  stand  for  actualities;  but 
that  when  our  symbolic  conceptions  are  such  that  no  cumu- 
lative or  indirect  processes  of  thought  can  enable  us  to  ascer- 
tain that  there  are  corresponding  actualities,  nor  any  predic- 
tions be  made  whose  fulfilment  can  prove  this,  then  they  are 
altogether  vicious  and  illusive,  and  in  no  way  distinguish- 
able from  pure  fictions. 


ULTIMATE   RELIGIOUS  IDEAS.  31 

§  10.  And  now  to  consider  the  bearings  of  this  general 
truth  on  our  immediate  topic — Ultimate  Religious  Ideas. 

To  the  primitive  man  sometimes  happen  things  which 
are  out  of  the  ordinary  course — diseases,  storms,  earth- 
quakes, echos,  eclipses.  From  dreams  arises  the  idea  of  a 
wandering  double;  whence  follows  the  belief  that  the  dou- 
ble, departing  permanently  at  death,  is  then  a  ghost. 
Ghosts  thus  become  assignable  causes  for  strange  occur- 
rences. The  greater  ghosts  are  presently  supposed  to  have 
extended  spheres  of  action.  As  men  grow  intelligent  the 
conceptions  of  these  minor  invisible  agencies  merge  into  the 
conception  of  a  universal  invisible  agency;  and  there  result 
hypotheses  concerning  the  origin,  not  of  special  incidents 
only,  but  of  things  in  general. 

A  critical  examination,  however,  will  prove  not  only 
that  no  current  hypothesis  is  tenable,  but  also  that  no  tena- 
ble hypothesis  can  be  framed. 

§  11.  Respecting  the  origin  of  the  Universe  three  ver- 
bally intelligible  suppositions  may  be  made.  We  may  as- 
sert that  it  is  self -existent ;  or  that  it  is  self -created ;  or  that 
it  is  created  by  an  external  agency.  Which  of  these  suppo- 
sitions is  most  credible  it  is  not  needful  here  to  inquire.  The 
deeper  question,  into  which  this  finally  merges,  is,  whether 
any  one  of  them  is  even  conceivable  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
word.    Let  us  successively  test  them. 

When  we  speak  of  a  man  as  self-supporting,  of  an  ap- 
paratus as  self-acting,  or  of  a  tree  as  self -developed,  our  ex- 
pressions, however  inexact,  stand  for  things  that  can  be 
realized  in  thought  with  tolerable  completeness.  Our  con- 
ception of  the  self -development  of  a  tree  is  doubtless  sym- 
bolic. But  though  we  cannot  really  represent  in  conscious- 
ness the  entire  series  of  complex  changes  through  which 
the  tree  passes,  yet  we  can  thus  represent  the  leading  fea- 
tures of  the  series;  and  general  experience  teaches  us  that 
by  long  continued  observation  we  could  gain  the  power  to 


32  ULTIMATE   RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

realize  in  thought  a  series  of  changes  more  fully  represent- 
ing the  actual  series:  that  is,  we  know  that  our  symbolic 
conception  of  self-development  can  be  expanded  into  some- 
thing like  a  real  conception;  and  that  it  expresses,  however 
inaccurately,  an  actual  process  in  nature.     But  when  we 
speak  of  self -existence,  and,  helped  by  the  above  analogies, 
form  some  vague  symbolic  conception  of  it,  we  delude  our- 
selves in  supposing  that  this  symbolic  conception  is  of  the 
same  order  as  the  others.     On  joining  the  word  self 'to  the 
word  existence,  the  force  of  association  makes  us  believe  we 
have  a  thought  like  that  suggested  by  the  compound  word 
self-acting.    An  endeavour  to  expand  this  symbolic  concep- 
tion, however,  will  undeceive  us.  In  the  first  place,  it 
is  clear  that  by  self -existence  we  especially  mean,  an  exist- 
ence independent  of  any  other — not  produced  by  any  other : 
the  assertion  of  self -existence  is  simply  an  indirect  denial  of 
creation.     In  thus  excluding  the  idea  of  any  antecedent 
cause,  we  necessarily  exclude  the  idea  of  a  beginning;  for 
to  admit  the  idea  of  a  beginning — to  admit  that  there  was  a 
time  when  the  existence  had  not  commenced — is  to  admit 
that  its  commencement  was  determined  by  something,  or 
was  caused;  which  is  a  contradiction.    Self-existence,  there- 
fore, necessarily  means  existence  without  a  beginning;  and 
to  form  a  conception  of  self-existence  is  to  form  a  concep- 
tion of  existence  without  a  beginning.     Now  by  no  mental 
effort  can  we  do  this.  To  conceive  existence  through  infinite 
past-time,  implies  the  conception  of  infinite  past-time,  which 
is  an  impossibility.                  To  this  let  us  add,  that  even 
were  self-existence  conceivable,  it  would  not  in  any  sense  be 
an  explanation  of  the  Universe.     Xo  one  will  say  that  the 
existence  of  an  object  at  the  present  moment  is  made  easier 
to  understand  by  the  discovery  that  it  existed  an  hour  ago,  or 
a  day  ago,  or  a  year  ago ;  and  if  its  existence  now  is  not  made 
in  the  least  degree  more  comprehensible  by  its  existence 
during  some  previous  finite  period  of  time,  then  no  accumu- 
lation of  such  finite  periods,  even  could  we  extend  them  to 


ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS   IDEAS.  33 

an  infinite  period,  would  make  it  more  comprehensible. 
Thus  the  Atheistic  theory  is  not  only  absolutely  unthink- 
able, but,  even  if  it  were  thinkable,  would  not  be  a  solution. 
The  assertion  that  the  Universe  is  self-existent  does  not 
really  carry  us  a  step  beyond  the  cognition  of  its  present  ex- 
istence; and  so  leaves  us  with  a  mere  re-statement  of  the 
mystery. 

The  hypothesis  of  self-creation,  which  practically 
amounts  to  what  is  called  Pantheism,  is  similarly  incapable 
of  being  represented  in  thought.  Certain  phenomena,  such 
as  the  precipitation  of  invisible  vapour  into  cloud,  aid  us  in 
forming  a  symbolic  conception  of  a  self -evolved  Universe; 
and  there  are  not  wanting  indications  in  the  heavens,  and  on 
the  earth,  which  help  us  to  render  this  conception  tolerably 
definite.  But  while  the  succession  of  phases  through  which 
the  Universe  has  passed  in  reaching  its  present  form,  may 
perhaps  be  comprehended  as  in  a  sense  self-determined ;  yet 
the  impossibility  of  expanding  our  symbolic  conception  of 
self-creation  into  a  real  conception,  remains  as  complete  as 
ever.  Really  to  conceive  self -creation,  is  to  conceive  poten- 
tial existence  passing  into  actual  existence  by  some  inherent 
necessity;  which  we  cannot  do.  We  cannot  form 

any  idea  of  a  potential  existence  of  the  universe,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  its  actual  existence.  If  represented  in 
thought  at  all,  potential  existence  must  be  represented  as 
something,  that  is  as  an  actual  existence ;  to  suppose  that  it 
can  be  represented  as  nothing,  involves  two  absurdities — 
that  nothing  is  more  than  a  negation,  and  can  be  positively 
represented  in  thought;  and  that  one  nothing  is  distin- 
guished from  all  other  nothings  by  its  power  to  develope  into 
something.  Nor  is  this  all.  We  have  no  state  of  conscious- 
ness answering  to  the  words — an  inherent  necessity  by 
which  potential  existence  became  actual  existence.  To  ren- 
der them  into  thought,  existence,  having  for  an  indefinite 
period  remained  in  one  form,  must  be  conceived  as  passing 
without  any  external  or  additional  impulse,  into  another 


34  ULTIMATE  EELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

form;  and   tins   involves   the   idea   of   a   change   without 
a  cause— a  thing    of  which  no  idea  is  possible.      Thus 
the    terms    of  this    hypothesis    do    not    stand    for    real 
thoughts;  but   merely   suggest    the   vaguest   symbols   in- 
capable of  any  interpretation.  Moreover,  even  were 
it  true  that  potential  existence  is  conceivable  as  a  different 
thing  from  actual  existence;  .and  that  the  transition  from 
the  one  to  the  other  can  be  mentally  realized  as  a  self-deter- 
mined change;  we  should  still  be  no  forwarder:  the  prob- 
lem would  simply  be  removed  a  step  back.     For  whence  the 
potential  existence?     This  would  just  as  much  require  ac- 
counting for  as  actual  existence;   and  just  the  same  difficul- 
ties would  meet  us.    Respecting  the  origin  of  such  a  latent 
power,  no  other  suppositions  could  be  made  than  those  above 
named — self-existence,  self-creation,  creation  by  external 
agency.     The  self-existence  of  a  potential  universe  is  no 
more  conceivable  than  we  have  found  the  self-existence  of 
the  actual  universe  to  be.    The  self-creation  of  such  a  poten- 
tial universe  would  involve  over  again  the  difficulties  here 
stated— would  imply  behind  this  potential  universe  a  more 
remote  potentiality;  and  so  on  in  an  infinite  series,  leaving 
us  at  last  no  forwarder  than  at  first.    While  to  assign  as  the 
source  of  this  potential  universe  an  external  agency,  would 
be  to  introduce  the  notion  of  a  potential  universe  for  no  pur- 
pose whatever. 

There  remains  to  be  examined  the  commonly-received  or 
theistic  hypothesis— creation  by  external  agency.  Alike  in 
the  rudest  creeds  and  in  the  cosmogony  long  current  among 
ourselves,  it  is  assumed  that  the  genesis  of  the  Heavens  and 
the  Earth  is  affected  somewhat  after  the  manner  in  which  a 
workman  shapes  a  piece  of  furniture.  And  this  assumption 
is  made  not  by  theologians  only,  but  by  the  immense  ma- 
jority of  philosophers,  past  and  present.  Equally  in  the 
writings  of  Plato,  and  in  those  of  not  a  few  living  men 
of  science,  we  find  it  taken  for  granted  that  there  is 
an  analogy  between  the  process  of  creation  and  the  process 


ULTIMATE   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS.  35 

of  manufacture.  Now  in  the  first  place,  not  only  is 

this  conception  one  that  cannot  by  any  cumulative  process 
of  thought,  or  the  fulfilment  of  predictions  based  on  it,  be 
shown  to  answer  to  anything  actual ;  and  not  only  is  it  that 
in  the  absence  of  all  evidence  respecting  the  process  of  crea- 
tion, we  have  no  proof  of  correspondence  even  between  this 
limited  conception  and  some  limited  portion  of  the  fact; 
but  it  is  that  the  conception  is  not  even  consistent  with  itself 
— cannot  be  realized  in  thought,  when  all  its  assumptions 
are  granted.  Though  it  is  true  that  the  proceedings  of  a 
human  artificer  may  vaguely  symbolize  to  us  a  method 
after  which  the  Universe  might  be  shaped,  yet  they  do  not 
help  us  to  comprehend  the  real  mystery ;  namely,  the  origin 
of  the  material  of  which  the  Universe  consists.  The  artizan 
does  not  make  the  iron,  wood,  or  stone,  he  uses ;  but  merely 
fashions  and  combines  them.  If  we  suppose  suns,  and  plan- 
ets, and  satellites,  and  all  they  contain  to  have  been  simi- 
larly formed  by  a  "  Great  Artificer,"  we  suppose  merely 
that  certain  pre-existing  elements  were  thus  put  into  their 
present  arrangement.  But  whence  the  pre-existing  ele- 
ments? The  comparison  helps  us  not  in  the  least  to  under- 
stand that;  and  unless  it  helps  us  to  understand  that,  it  is 
worthless.  The  production  of  matter  out  of  nothing  is  the 
real  mystery,  which  neither  this  simile  nor  any  other  enables 
us  to  conceive;  and  a  simile  which  does  not  enable  us  to 
conceive  this,  may  just  as  well  be  dispensed  with.  Still 

more  manifest  does  the  insufficiency  of  this  theory  of  crea- 
tion become,  when  we  turn  from  material  objects  to  that 
which  contains  them — when  instead  of  matter  we  contem- 
plate space.  Did  there  exist  nothing  but  an  immeasurable 
void,  explanation  would  be  needed  as  much  as  now.  There 
would  still  arise  the  question — how  came  it  so?  If  the  the- 
ory of  creation  by  external  agency  were  an  adequate  one,  it 
would  supply  an  answer;  and  its  answer  would  be — space 
was  made  in  the  same  manner  that  matter  was  made.  But 
the  impossibility  of  conceiving  this  is  so  manifest,  that  no 


36  ULTIMATE   RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

one  dares  to  assert  it.  For  if  space  was  created,  it  must 
have  been  previously  non-existent.  The  non-existence  of 
space  cannot,  however,  by  any  mental  effort  be  imagined. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  familiar  truths  that  the  idea  of  space  as 
surrounding  us  on  all  sides,  is  not  for  a  moment  to  be  got  rid 
of — not  only  are  we  compelled  to  think  of  space  as  now 
everywhere  present,  but  we  are  unable  to  conceive  its  ab- 
sense  either  in  the  past  or  the  future.  And  if  the  non-ex- 
istence of  space  is  absolutely  inconceivable,  then,  neces- 
sarily, its  creation  is  absolutely  inconceivable.  Lastly, 
even  supposing  that  the  genesis  of  the  Universe  could  really 
be  represented  in  thought  as  the  result  of  an  external 
agency,  the  mystery  would  be  as  great  as  ever;  for  there 
would  still  arise  the  question — how  came  there  to  be  an  ex- 
ternal agency?  To  account  for  this  only  the  same  three 
hypotheses  are  possible — self-existence,  self-creation,  and 
creation  by  external  agency.  Of  these  the  last  is  useless: 
it  commits  us  to  an  infinite  series  of  such  agencies,  and  even 
then  leaves  us  where  we  were.  By  the  second  we  are  prac- 
tically involved  in  the  same  predicament;  since,  as  already 
shown,  self-creation  implies  an  infinite  series  of  potential 
existences.  We  are  obliged  therefore  to  fall  back  upon  the 
first,  which  is  the  one  commonly  accepted  and  commonly 
supposed  to  be  satisfactory.  Those  who  cannot  conceive  a 
self -existent  universe;  and  who  therefore  assume  a  creator 
as  the  source  of  the  universe;  take  for  granted  that  they  can 
conceive  a  self-existent  creator.  The  mystery  which  they 
recognize  in  this  great  fact  surrounding  them  on  every  side, 
they  transfer  to  an  alleged  source  of  this  great  fact;  and 
then  suppose  that  they  have  solved  the  mystery.  But  they 
delude  themselves.  As  was  proved  at  the  outset  of  the 
argument,  self -existence  is  rigorously  inconceivable;  and 
this  holds  true  whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  object  of  which 
it  is  predicated.  T\ Tioever  agrees  that  the  atheistic  hypo- 
thesis is  untenable  because  it  involves  the  impossible  idea 
of  self-existence,  must  perforce  admit  that  the  theistic 


ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS.  37 

hypothesis  is  untenable  if  it  contains  the  same  impossible 
idea. 

Thus  these  three  different  suppositions  respecting  the 
origin  of  things,  verbally  intelligible  though  they  are,  and 
severally  seeming  to  their  respective  adherents  quite  ra- 
tional, turn  out,  when  critically  examined,  to  be  literally 
unthinkable.  It  is  not  a  question  of  probability,  or  credibil- 
ity, but  of  conceivability.  Experiment  proves  that  the  ele- 
ments of  these  hypotheses  cannot  even  be  put  together  in 
consciousness ;  and  we  can  entertain  them  only  as  we  enter- 
tain such  pseud-ideas  as  a  square  fluid  and  a  moral  sub- 
stance— only  by  abstaining  from  the  endeavour  to  render 
them  into  actual  thoughts.  Or,  reverting  to  our  original 
mode  of  statement,  we  may  say  that  they  severally  involve 
symbolic  conceptions  of  the  illegitimate  and  illusive  kind. 
Differing  so  widely  as  they  seem  to  do,  the  atheistic,  the 
pantheistic,  and  the  theistic  hypotheses  contain  the  same 
ultimate  element.  It  is  impossible  to  avoid  making  the 
assumption  of  self -existence  somewhere;  and  whether  that 
assumption  be  made  nakedly,  or  under  complicated  dis- 
guises, it  is  equally  vicious,  equally  unthinkable.  Be  it  a 
fragment  of  matter,  or  some  fancied  potential  form  of  mat- 
ter, or  some  more  remote  and  still  less  imaginable  cause,  our 
conception  of  its  self -existence  can  be  formed  only  by  join- 
ing with  it  the  notion  of  unlimited  duration  through  past 
time.  And  as  unlimited  duration  is  inconceivable,  all  those 
formal  ideas  into  which  it  enters  are  inconceivable ;  and  in- 
deed, if  such  an  expression  is  allowable,  are  the  more  incon- 
ceivable in  proportion  as  the  other  elements  of  the  ideas  are 
indefinite.  So  that  in  fact,  impossible  as  it  is  to  think  of  the 
actual  universe  as  self -existing,  we  do  but  multiply  impossi- 
bilities of  thought  by  every  attempt  we  make  to  explain  its 
existence. 

§  12.  If  from  the  origin  of  the  Universe  we  turn  to  its 
nature,  the  like  insurmountable  difficulties  rise  up  before  us 


3g  ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

on  all  skies — or  rather,  the  same  difficulties  under  new  as- 
pects. We  find  ourselves  on  the  one  hand  obliged  to  make 
certain  assumptions;  and  yet  on  the  other  hand  we  find 
these  assumptions  cannot  be  represented  in  thought. 

When  we  inquire  what  is  the  meaning  of  the  various 
effects  produced  upon  our  senses — when  we  ask  how  there 
come  to  be  in  our  consciousness  impressions  of  sounds,  of  col- 
ours, of  tastes,  and  of  those  various  attributes  which  we  as- 
cribe to  bodies;  we  are  compelled  to  regard  them  as  the  ef- 
fects of  some  cause.  We  may  stop  short  in  the  belief 
that  this  cause  is  what  we  call  matter.  Or  we  may 
conclude,  as  some  do,  that  matter  is  only  a  cer- 
tain mode  of  manifestation  of  spirit;  which  is  there- 
fore the  true  cause.  Or,  regarding  matter  and  spirit 
as  proximate  agencies,  we  may  attribute  all  the  changes 
wrought  in  our  consciousness  to  immediate  divine  power. 
But  be  the  cause  we  assign  what  it  may,  we  are  obliged  to 
suppose  some  cause.  And  we  are  not  only  obliged  to  sup- 
pose some  cause,  but  also  a  first  cause.  The  matter,  or  spirit, 
or  whatever  we  assume  to  be  the  agent  producing  on  us  these 
various  impressions,  must  either  be  the  first  cause  of  them  or 
not.  If  it  is  the  first  cause,  the  conclusion  is  reached.  If  it 
is  not  the  first  cause,  then  by  implication  there  must  be  a 
cause  behind  it;  which  thus  becomes  the  real  cause  of  the 
effect.  Manifestly,  however  complicated  the  assumptions, 
the  same  conclusion  must  inevitably  be  reached.  We  can- 
not think  at  all  about  the  impressions  which  the  external 
world  produces  on  us,  without  thinking  of  them  as  caused; 
and  we  cannot  carry  out  an  inquiry  concerning  their  causa- 
tion, without  inevitably  committing  ourselves  to  the  hypo- 
thesis of  a  First  Cause. 

But  now  if  we  go  a  step  further,  and  ask  what  is  the  na- 
ture of  this  First  Cause,  we  are  driven  by  an  inexorable 
logic  to  certain  further  conclusions.  Is  the  First  Cause  finite 
or  infinite?  If  we  say  finite  we  involve  ourselves  in  a  di- 
lemma.   To  think  of  the  First  Cause  as  finite,  is  to  think  of 


ULTIMATE  KELIGIOUS   IDEAS.  39 

it  as  limited.  To  think  of  it  as  limited,  necessarily  implies 
a  conception  of  something  beyond  its  limits :  it  is  absolutely 
impossible  to  conceive  a  thing  as  bounded  without  conceiv- 
ing a  region  surrounding  its  boundaries.  What  now  must 
we  say  of  this  region?  If  the  First  Cause  is  limited,  and 
there  consequently  lies  something  outside  of  it,  this  some- 
thing must  have  no  First  Cause — must  be  uncaused.  But 
if  we  admit  that  there  can  be  something  uncaused,  there  is 
no  reason  to  assume  a  cause  for  anything.  If  beyond  that 
finite  region  over  which  the  First  Cause  extends,  there  lies 
a  region,  which  we  are  compelled  to  regard  as  infinite,  over 
which  it  does  not  extend — if  we  admit  that  there  is  an  infi- 
nite uncaused  surrounding  the  finite  caused;  we  tacitly 
abandon  the  hypothesis  of  causation  altogether.  Thus  it 
is  impossible  to  consider  the  First  Cause  as  finite.  And  if  it 
cannot  be  finite  it  must  be  infinite. 

Another  inference  concerning  the  First  Cause  is  equally 
unavoidable.  It  must  be  independent.  If  it  is  dependent  it 
cannot  be  the  First  Cause;  for  that  must  be  the  First 
Cause  on  which  it  depends.  It  is  not  enough  to  say  that  it  is 
partially  independent;  since  this  implies  some  necessity 
which  determines  its  partial  dependence,  and  this  necessity, 
be  it  what  it  may,  must  be  a  higher  cause,  or  the  true  First 
Cause,  which  is  a  contradiction.  But  to  think  of  the  First 
Cause  as  totally  independent,  is  to  think  of  it  as  that  which 
exists  in  the  absence  of  all  other  existence;  seeing  that  if 
the  presence  of  any  other  existence  is  necessary,  it  must  be 
partially  dependent  on  that  other  existence,  and  so  cannot 
be  the  First  Cause.  Not  only  however  must  the  First  Cause 
be  a  form  of  being  which  has  no  necessary  relation  to  any 
other  form  of  being,  but  it  can  have  no  necessary  rela- 
tion within  itself.  There  can  be  nothing  in  it  which  deter- 
mines change,  and  yet  nothing  which  prevents  change.  For 
if  it  contains  something  which  imposes  such  necessities  or  re- 
straints, this  something  must  be  a  cause  higher  than  the 
First  Cause,  which  is  absurd.    Thus  the  First  Cause  must  be 


40  ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

in  every  sense  perfect,  complete,  total :  including  within  it- 
self all  power,  and  transcending  all  law.  Or  to  use  the  es- 
tablished word,  it  must  be  absolute. 

Here  then  respecting  the  nature  of  the  Universe,  we 
seem  committed  to  certain  unavoidable  conclusions.  The 
objects  and  actions  surrounding  us,  not  less  than  the  phe- 
nomena of  our  own  consciousness,  compel  us  to  ask  a  cause; 
in  our  search  for  a  cause,  we  discover  no  resting  place  until 
we  arrive  at  the  hypothesis  of  a  First  Cause ;  and  we  have  no 
alternative  but  to  regard  this  First  Cause  as  Infinite  and  Ab- 
solute. These  are  inferences  forced  upon  us  by  arguments 
from  which  there  appears  no  escape.  It  is  hardly  needful 
however  to  show  those  who  have  followed  thus  far,  how 
illusive  are  these  reasonings  and  their  results.  But  that  it 
would  tax  the  reader's  patience  to  no  purpose,  it  might  easily 
be  proved  that  the  materials  of  which  the  argument  is  built, 
equally  with  the  conclusions  based  on  them,  are  merely 
symbolic  conceptions  of  the  illegitimate  order.  Instead, 
however,  of  repeating  the  disproof  used  above,  it  will  be 
desirable  to  pursue  another  method;  showing  fallacy 
of  these  conclusions  by  disclosing  their  mutual  contradic- 
tions. 

Here  I  cannot  do  better  than  avail  myself  of  the  demon- 
stration which  Mr  Mansel,  carrying  out  in  detail  the  doc- 
trine of  Sir  William  Hamilton,  has  given  in  his  "  Limits  of 
Religious  Thought."  And  I  gladly  do  this,  not  only  be- 
cause his  mode  of  presentation  cannot  be  improved,  but  also 
because,  writing  as  he  does  in  defence  of  the  current  Theolo- 
gy, his  reasonings  will  be  the  more  acceptable  to  the  major- 
ity of  readers. 

§  13.  Having  given  preliminary  definitions  of  the  First 
Cause,  of  the  Infinite,  and  of  the  Absolute,  Mr  Mansel 
says : — 

"  But  these  three  conceptions,  the  Cause,  the  Absolute, 
the  Infinite,  all  equally  indispensable,  do  they  not  imply 


ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS.  41 

contradiction  to  each  other,  when  viewed  in  conjunction,  as 
attributes  of  one  and  the  same  Being?  A  Cause  cannot,  as 
such,  be  absolute :  the  Absolute  cannot,  as  such,  be  a  cause. 
The  cause,  as  such,  exists  only  in  relation  to  its  effect:  the 
cause  is  a  cause  of  the  effect;  the  effect  is  an  effect  of  the 
cause.  On  the  other  hand,  the  conception  of  the  Absolute 
implies  a  possible  existence  out  of  all  relation.  AVe  attempt 
to  escape  from  this  apparent  contradiction,  by  introducing 
the  idea  of  succession  in  time.  The  Absolute  exists  first  by 
itself,  and  afterwards  becomes  a  Cause.  But  here  we  are 
checked  by  the  third  conception,  that  of  the  Infinite.  How 
can  the  Infinite  become  that  which  it  was  not  from  the  first? 
If  Causation  is  a  possible  mode  of  existence,  that  which  ex- 
ists without  causing  is  not  infinite;  that  which  becomes  a 
cause  has  passed  beyond  its  former  limits."  *  *  * 

"  Supposing  the  Absolute  to  become  a  cause,  it  will  fol- 
low that  it  operates  by  means  of  freewill  and  consciousness. 
For  a  necessary  cause  cannot  be  conceived  as  absolute  and 
infinite.  If  necessitated  by  something  beyond  itself,  it  is 
thereby  limited  by  a  superior  power;  and  if  necessitated  by 
itself,  it  has  in  its  own  nature  a  necessary  relation  to  its 
effect.  The  act  of  causation  must  therefore  be  voluntary; 
and  volition  is  only  possible  in  a  conscious  being.  But  con- 
sciousness again  is  only  conceivable  as  a  relation.  There 
must  be  a  conscious  subject,  and  an  object  of  which  he  is 
conscious.  The  subject  is  a  subject  to  the  object;  the  ob- 
ject is  an  object  to  the  subject;  and  neither  can  exist  by  it- 
self as  the  absolute.  This  difficulty,  again,  may  be  for  the 
moment  evaded,  by  distinguishing  between  the  absolute  as 
related  to  another  and  the  absolute  as  related  to  itself.  The 
Absolute,  it  may  be  said,  may  possibly  be  conscious,  pro- 
vided it  is  only  conscious  of  itself.  But  this  alternative  is, 
in  ultimate  analysis,  no  less  self -destructive  than  the  other. 
For  the  object  of  consciousness,  whether  a  mode  of  the  sub- 
ject's existence  or  not,  is  either  created  in  and  by  the  act  of 
consciousness,  or  has  an  existence  independent  of  it.    In  the 


42  ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

former  case,  the  object  depends  upon  the  subject,  and  the: 
subject  alone  is  the  true  absolute.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
subject  depends  upon  the  object,  and  the  object  alone  is  the 
true  absolute.  Or  if  we  attempt  a  third  hypothesis,  and 
maintain  that  each  exists  independently  of  the  other,  we 
have  no  absolute  at  all,  but  only  a  pair  of  relatives;  for  co- 
existence, whether  in  consciousness  or  not,  is  itself  a  re- 
lation." 

"  The  corollary  from  this  reasoning  is  obvious.  Xot 
only  is  the  Absolute,  as  conceived,  incapable  of  a  necessary 
relation  to  anything  else;  but  it  is  also  incapable  of  con- 
taining, by  the  constitution  of  its  own  nature,  an  essential 
relation  within  itself;  as  a  whole,  for  instance,  composed  of 
parts,  or  as  a  substance  consisting  of  attributes,  or  as  a  con- 
scious subject  in  antithesis  to  an  object.  For  if  there  is  in 
the  absolute  any  principle  of  unity,  distinct  from  the  mere 
accumulation  of  parts  or  attributes,  this  principle  alone  is 
the  true  absolute.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  such 
principle,  then  there  is  no  absolute  at  all,  but  only  a  plural- 
ity of  relatives.  The  almost  unanimous  voice  of  philosophy, 
in  pronouncing  that  the  absolute  is  both  one  and  simple, 
must  be  accepted  as  the  voice  of  reason  also,  so  far  as  reason 
has  any  voice  in  the  matter.  But  this  absolute  unity,  as  in- 
different and  containing  no  attributes,  can  neither  be  distin- 
guished from  the  multiplicity  of  finite  beings  by  any  char- 
acteristic feature,  nor  be  identified  with  them  in  their  multi- 
plicity. Thus  we  are  landed  in  an  inextricable  dilemma. 
The  Absolute  cannot  be  conceived  as  conscious,  neither  can 
it  be  conceived  as  unconscious:  it  cannot  be  conceived  as 
complex,  neither  can  it  be  conceived  as  simple :  it  cannot  be 
conceived  by  difference,  neither  can  it  be  conceived  by  .the 
absence  of  difference:  it  cannot  be  identified  with  the  uni- 
verse, neither  can  it  be  distinguished  from  it.  The  One  and 
the  Many,  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  existence,  are  thus 
alike  incomprehensible." 

"  The  fundamental  conceptions  of  Rational  Theology 


ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS.  43 

"being  thus  self-destructive,  we  may  naturally  expect  to  find 
the  same  antagonism  manifested  in  their  special  applica- 
tions. *  *  *  How,  for  example,  can  Infinite  Power  be  able 
to  do  all  things,  and  yet  Infinite  Goodness  be  unable  to  do 
evil?  How  can  Infinite  Justice  exact  the  utmost  penalty 
for  every  sin,  and  yet  Infinite  Mercy  pardon  the  sinner? 
How  can  Infinite  Wisdom  know  all  that  is  to  come,  and  yet 
Infinite  Freedom  be  at  liberty  to  do  or  to  forbear?  How  is 
the  existence  of  Evil  compatible  with  that  of  an  infinitely 
perfect  Being;  for  if  he  wills  it,  he  is  not  infinitely  good; 
and  if  he  wills  it  not,  his  will  is  thwarted  and  his  sphere  of 
action  limited?  "  *  *  * 

"  Let  us,  however,  suppose  for  an  instant  that  these 
difficulties  are  surmounted,  and  the  existence  of  the  Abso- 
lute securely  established  on  the  testimony  of  reason.  Still 
we  have  not  succeeded  in  reconciling  this  idea  with  that  of  a 
Cause:  we  have  done  nothing  towards  explaining  how  the 
absolute  can  give  rise  to  the  relative,  the  infinite  to  the 
finite.  If  the  condition  of  causal  activity  is  a  higher  state 
than  that  of  quiescence,  the  Absolute,  whether  acting  vol- 
untarily or  involuntarily,  has  passed  from  a  condition  of 
comparative  imperfection  to  one  of  comparative  per- 
fection; and  therefore  was  not  originally  perfect.  If 
the  state  of  activity  is  an  inferior  state  to  that  of 
quiescence,  the  Absolute,  in  becoming  a  cause,  has  lost  its 
original  perfection.  There  remains  only  the  supposition 
that  the  two  states  are  equal,  and  the  act  of  creation  one  of 
complete  indifference.  But  this  supposition  annihilates  the 
unity  of  the  absolute,  or  it  annihilates  itself.  If  the  act  of 
creation  is  real,  and  yet  indifferent,  we  must  admit  the  pos- 
sibility of  two  conceptions  of  the  absolute,  the  one  as  pro- 
ductive, the  other  as  non-productive.  If  the  act  is  not  real, 
the  supposition  itself  vanishes."  *  *  * 

"  Again,  how  can  the  relative  be  conceived  as  coming 
into  being?  If  it  is  a  distinct  reality  from  the  absolute,  it 
must  be  conceived  as  passing  from  non-existence  into  exist- 


44  ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

ence.  But  to  conceive  an  object  as  non-existent,  is  again  a 
self-contradiction;  for  that  which  is  conceived  exists,  as  an 
object  of  thought,  in  and  by  that  conception.  We  may  ab- 
stain from  thinking  of  an  object  at  all;  but,  if  we  think  of 
it,  we  cannot  but  think  of  it  as  existing.  It  is  possible  at  one 
time  not  to  think  of  an  object  at  all,  and  at  another  to  think 
of  it  as  already  in  being;  but  to  think  of  it  in  the  act  of  be- 
coming, in  the  progress  from  not  being  into  being,  is  to 
think  that  which,  in  the  very  thought,  annihilates  it- 
self." *  *  * 

"  To  sum  up  briefly  this  portion  of  my  argument.  The 
conception  of  the  Absolute  and  Infinite,  from  whatever  side 
we  view  it,  appears  encompassed  with  contradictions.  There 
is  a  contradiction  in  supposing  such  an  object  to  exist, 
whether  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  others;  and  there  is 
a  contradiction  in  supposing  it  not  to  exist.  There  is 
a  contradiction  in  conceiving  it  as  one ;  and  there  is  a  con- 
tradiction in  conceiving  it  as  many.  There  is  a  contradic- 
tion in  conceiving  it  as  personal;  and  there  is  a  contradic- 
tion in  conceiving  it  as  impersonal.  It  cannot,  without 
contradiction,  be  represented  as  active;  nor,  without  equal 
contradiction,  be  represented  as  inactive.  It  cannot  be  con- 
ceived as  the  sum  of  all  existence;  nor  yet  can  it  be  con- 
ceived as  a  part  only  of  that  sum." 

§  14.  And  now  what  is  the  bearing  of  these  results  on 
the  question  before  us?  Our  examination  of  Ultimate  Ke- 
ligious  Ideas  has  been  carried  on  with  the  view  of  making 
manifest  some  fundamental  verity  contained  in  them. 
Thus  far  however  we  have  arrived  at  negative  conclusions 
only.  Criticising  the  essential  conceptions  involved  in  the 
different  orders  of  beliefs,  we  find  no  one  of  them  to  be 
logically  defensible.  Passing  over  the  consideration  of 
credibility,  and  confining  ourselves  to  that  of  conceivabil- 
ity,  we  see  that  Atheism,  Pantheism,  and  Theism,  when  rig- 
orously analyzed,  severally  prove  to  be  absolutely  unthink- 


ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS.  45 

able.  Instead  of  disclosing  a  fundamental  verity  existing 
in  each,  onr  investigation  seems  rather  to  have  shown  that 
there  is  no  fundamental  verity  contained  in  any.  To  carry 
away  this  conclusion,  however,  would  be  a  fatal  error;  as 
we  shall  shortly  see. 

Leaving  out  the  accompanying  moral  code,  which  is  in 
all  cases  a  supplementary  growth,  a  religious  creed  is  defin- 
able as  a  theory  of  original  causation.  By  the  lowest  sav- 
ages the  genesis  of  things  is  not  inquired  about :  anomalous 
appearances  alone  raise  the  question  of  agency.  But  be  it 
in  the  primitive  Ghost-theory  which  assumes  a  human 
personality  behind  each  unusual  phenomenon ;  be  it  in  Poly- 
theism, in  which  these  personalities  are  partially  general- 
ized ;  be  it  in  Monotheism,  in  which  they  are  wholly  gener- 
alized ;  or  be  it  in  Pantheism,  in  which  the  generalized  per- 
sonality becomes  one  with  the  phenomena ;  we  equally  find 
an  hypothesis  which  is  supposed  to  render  the  Universe 
comprehensible.  Nay,  even  that  which  is  commonly  re- 
garded as  the  negation  of  all  Religion — even  positive  Athe- 
ism, comes  within  the  definition ;  for  it,  too,  in  asserting  the 
self-existence  of  Space,  Matter,  and  Motion,  which  it  re- 
gards as  adequate  causes  of  every  appearance,  propounds  an 
a  priori  theory  from  which  it  holds  the  facts  to  be  deducible. 
Now  every  theory  tacitly  asserts  two  things:  firstly,  that 
there  is  something  to  be  explained;  secondly,  that  such 
and  such  is  the  explanation.  Hence,  however  widely  dif- 
ferent speculators  may  disagree  in  the  solutions  they  give  of 
the  same  problem ;  yet  by  implication  they  agree  that  there 
is  a  problem  to  be  solved.  Here  then  is  an  element  which 
all  creeds  have  in  common.  Religions  diametrically  op- 
posed in  their  overt  dogmas,  are  yet  perfectly  at  one  in  the 
tacit  conviction  that  the  existence  of  the  world  with  all  it 
contains  and  all  which  surrounds  it,  is  a  mystery  ever  press- 
ing for  interpretation.  On  this  point,  if  on  no  other,  there 
is  entire  unanimity. 

Thus  we  come  within  sight  of  that  which  we  seek.     In 


46  ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

tlie  last  chapter,  reasons  were  given  for  inferring  that 
human  beliefs  in  general,  and  especially  the  perennial  ones, 
contain,  under  whatever  disguises  of  error,  some  soul  of 
truth ;  and  here  we  have  arrived  at  a  truth  underlying  even 
the  grossest  superstitions.  AVe  saw  further  that  this  soul  of 
truth  was  most  likely  to  be  some  constituent  common  to  con- 
flicting opinions  of  the  same  order ;  and  here  we  have  a  con- 
stituent which  may  be  claimed  alike  by  all  religions.  It  was 
pointed  out  that  this  soul  of  truth  would  almost  certainly  be 
more  abstract  than  any  of  the  beliefs  involving  it ;  and  the 
truth  we  have  arrived  at  is  one  exceeding  in  abstractness  the 
most  abstract  religious  doctrines.  In  every  respect,  there- 
fore, our  conclusion  answers  to  the  requirements.  It  has  all 
the  characteristics  which  we  inferred  must  belong  to  that 
fundamental  verity  expressed  by  religions  in  general. 

That  this  is  the  vital  element  in  all  religions  is  further 
proved  by  the  fact,  that  it  is  the  element  which  not  only  sur- 
vives every  change,  but  grows  more  distinct  the  more  high- 
ly the  religion  is  developed.  Aboriginal  creeds,  though  per- 
vaded by  the  idea  of  personal  agencies  which  are  usually 
unseen,  yet  conceive  these  agencies  under  perfectly  concrete 
and  ordinary  forms — class  them  with  the  visible  agencies  of 
men  and  animals;  and  so  hide  a  vague  perception  of  mys- 
tery in  disguises  as  unmysterious  as  possible.  The  Poly- 
theistic conceptions  in  their  advanced  phases,  represent  the 
presiding  personalities  in  greatly  idealized  shapes,  existing 
in  a  remote  region,  working  in  subtle  ways,  and  communi- 
cating with  men  by  omens  or  through  inspired  persons;  that 
is,  the  ultimate  causes  of  things  are  regarded  as  less  familiar 
and  comprehensible.  The  growth  of  a  Monotheistic  faith, 
accompanied  as  it  is  by  a  denial  of  those  beliefs  in  which  the 
divine  nature  is  assimilated  to  the  human  in  all  its  lower 
propensities,  shows  us  a  further  step  in  the  same  direction; 
and  however  imperfectly  this  higher  faith  is  at  first  real- 
ized, we  yet  see  in  altars  "  to  the  unknown  and  unknow- 
able God,"  and  in  the  worship  of  a  God  that  cannot  by  any 


ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS.  41 

searching  be  found  out,  that  there  is  a  clearer  recognition 
of  the  inscrutableness  of  creation.  Further  developments 
of  theology,  ending  in  such  assertions  as  that  "  a  God  un- 
derstood would  be  no  God  at  all,"  and  "  to  think  that  God 
is,  as  we  can  think  him  to  be,  is  blasphemy,"  exhibit  this 
recognition  still  more  distinctly ;  and  it  pervades  all  the  cul- 
tivated theology  of  the  present  day.  Thus  while  other  con- 
stituents of  religious  creeds  one  by  one  drop  away,  this  re- 
mains and  grows  even  more  manifest ;  and  so  is  shown  to  be 
the  essential  constituent. 

Nor  does  the  evidence  end  here.  Not  only  is  the  omni- 
presence of  something  which  passes  comprehension,  that 
most  abstract  belief  which  is  common  to  all  religions,  which 
becomes  the  more  distinct  in  proportion  as  they  develope, 
and  which  remains  after  their  discordant  elements  have 
been  mutually  cancelled;  but  it  is  that  belief  which  the 
most  unsparing  criticism  of  each  leaves  unquestionable — or 
rather  makes  ever  clearer.  It  has  nothing  to  fear  from  the 
most  inexorable  logic ;  but  on  the  contrary  is  a  belief  which 
the  most  inexorable  logic  shows  to  be  more  profoundly  true 
than  any  religion  supposes.  For  every  religion,  setting  out 
though  it  does  with  the  tacit  assertion  of  a  mystery,  forth- 
with proceeds  to  give  some  solution  of  this  mystery ;  and  so 
asserts  that  it  is  not  a  mystery  passing  human  comprehen- 
sion. But  an  examination  of  the  solutions  they  severally 
propound,  shows  them  to  be  uniformly  invalid.  The  analy- 
sis of  every  possible  hypothesis  proves,  not  simply  that  no 
hypothesis  is  sufficient,  but  that  no  hypothesis  is  even  think- 
able. And  thus  the  mystery  which  all  religions  recognize, 
turns  out  to  be  a  far  more  transcendent  mystery  than  any  of 
them  suspect — not  a  relative,  but  an  absolute  mystery. 

Here,  then,  is  an  ultimate  religious  truth  of  the  highest 
possible  certainty — a  truth  in  which  religions  in  general  are 
at  one  with  each  other,  and  with  a  philosophy  antagonistic 
to  their  special  dogmas.  And  this  truth,  respecting  which 
there  is  a  latent  agreement  among  all  mankind  from  the 


48  ULTIMATE  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

fetish-worsMpper  to  the  most  stoical  critic  of  human  creeds, 
must  be  the  one  we  seek.  If  Religion  and  Science  are  to  be 
reconciled,  the  basis  of  reconciliation  must  be  this  deepest, 
widest,  and  most  certain  of  all  facts — that  the  Power  which 
the  Universe  manifests  to  us  is  utterly  inscrutable. 


CHAPTER  III. 

ULTIMATE    SCIENTIFIC    IDEAS. 

§  15.  What  are  Space  and  Time?  Two  hypotheses  are 
current  respecting  them:  the  one  that  they  are  objective, 
and  the  other  that  they  are  subjective — the  one  that  they 
are  external  to,  and  independent  of,  ourselves,  the  other 
that  they  are  internal,  and  appertain  to  our  own  conscious- 
ness. Let  us  see  what  becomes  of  these  hypotheses  under 
analysis. 

To  say  that  Space  and  Time  exist  objectively,  is  to  say 
that  they  are  entities.  The  assertion  that  they  are  non- 
entities is  self -destructive :  non-entities  are  non-existences; 
and  to  allege  that  non-existences  exist  objectively,  is  a  con- 
tradiction in  terms.  Moreover,  to  deny  that  Space  and  Time 
are  things,  and  so  by  implication  to  call  them  nothings,  in- 
volves the  absurdity  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  nothing. 
Neither  can  they  be  regarded  as  attributes  of  some  entity; 
seeing,  not  only  that  it  is  impossible  really  to  conceive  any 
entity  of  which  they  are  attributes,  but  seeing  further  that 
we  cannot  think  of  them  as  disappearing,  even  if  every- 
thing else  disappeared;  whereas  attributes  necessarily  dis- 
appear along  with  the  entities  they  belong  to.  Thus  as 
Space  and  Time  cannot  be  either  non-entities,  nor  the  attri- 
butes of  entities,  we  have  no  choice  but  consider  them  as 
entities.  But  while,  on  the  hypothesis  of  their  ob- 

jectivity, Space  and  Time  must  be  classed  as  things,  we 
find,  on  experiment,  that  to  represent  them  in  thought  as 

49 


50  ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS. 

tilings  is  impossible.  To  be  conceived  at  all,  a  thing  must 
be  conceived  as  having  attributes.  "We  can  distinguish 
something  from  nothing,  only  by  the  power  which  the 
something  has  to  act  on  our  consciousness;  the  several 
affections  it  produces  on  our  consciousness  (or  else  the 
hypothetical  causes  of  them),  we  attribute  to  it,  and  call 
its  attributes;  and  the  absence  of  these  attributes  is  the 
absence  of  the  terms  in  which  the  something  is  conceived, 
and  involves  the  absence  of  a  conception.  What  now  are 
the  attributes  of  Space?  The  only  one  which  it  is  possible 
for  a  moment  to  think  of  as  belonging  to  it,  is  that  of  exten- 
sion; and  to  credit  it  with  this  implies  a  confusion  of 
thought.  For  extension  and  Space  are  controvertible  terms : 
by  extension,  as  we  ascribe  it  to  surrounding  objects,  we 
mean  occupancy  of  Space;  and  thus  to  say  that  Space  is  ex- 
tended, is  to  say  that  Space  occupies  Space.  How  we  are 
similarly  unable  to  assign  any  attribute  to  Time,  scarcely 
needs  pointing  out.  Nor  are  Time  and   Space  un- 

thinkable as  entities  only  from  the  absence  of  attributes; 
there  is  another  peculiarity,  familiar  to  readers  of  meta- 
physics, which  equally  excludes  them  from  the  category. 
All  entities  which  we  actually  know  as  such,  are  limited; 
and  even  if  we  suppose  ourselves  either  to  know  or  to  be 
able  to  conceive  some  unlimited  entity,  we  of  necessity  in  so 
classing  it  positively  separate  it  from  the  class  of  limited 
entities.  'But  of  Space  and  Time  we  cannot  assert  either 
limitation  or  the  absence  of  limitation.  We  find  ourselves 
totally  unable  to  form  any  mental  image  of  unbounded 
Space;  and  yet  totally  unable  to  imagine  bounds  beyond 
which  there  is  no  Space.  Similarly  at  the  other  extreme: 
it  is  impossible  to  think  of  a  limit  to  the  divisibility  of 
Space;  yet  equally  impossible  to  think  of  its  infinite  divisi- 
bility. And,  without  stating  them,  it  will  be  seen  that  we 
labour  under  like  impotencies  in  respect  to  Time.  Thus 

we  cannot  conceive  Space  and  Time  as  entities,  and  are 
equally  disabled  from  conceiving  them  as  either  the  attri- 


ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS.  51 

butes  of  entities  or  as  non-entities.  We  are  compelled  to 
think  of  them  as  existing;  and  yet  cannot  bring  them 
within  those  conditions  under  which  existences  are  repre- 
sented in  thought. 

Shall  we  then  take  refuge  in  the  Kantian  doctrine? 
shall  we  say  that  Space  and  Time  are  forms  of  the  intellect, 
— "  a  priori  laws  or  conditions  of  the  conscious  mind  "  ? 
To  do  this  is  to  escape  from  great  difficulties  by  rushing 
into  greater.  The  proposition  with  which  Kant's  philoso- 
phy sets  out,  verbally  intelligible  though  it  is,  cannot  by 
any  effort  be  rendered  into  thought — cannot  be  interpreted 
into  an  idea  properly  so  called,  but  stands  merely  for  a 
pseud-idea.  In  the  first  place,  to  assert  that  Space 

and  Time,  as  we  are  conscious  of  them,  are  subjective  condi- 
tions, is  by  implication  to  assert  that  they  are  not  objective 
realities:  if  the  Space  and  Time  present  to  our  minds  be- 
long to  the  ego,  then  of  necessity  they  do  not  belong  to  the 
non-ego.  Now  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  think  this. 
The  very  fact  on  which  Kant  bases  his  hypothesis — namely 
that  our  consciousness  of  Space  and  Time  cannot  be  sup- 
pressed— testifies  as  much;  for  that  consciousness  of  Space 
and  Time  which  we  cannot  rid  ourselves  of,  is  the  conscious- 
ness of  them  as  existing  objectively.  It  is  useless  to  reply 
that  such  an  inability  must  inevitably  result  if  they  are  sub- 
jective forms.  The  question  here  is — What  does  conscious- 
ness directly  testify?  And  the  direct  testimony  of  con- 
sciousness is,  that  Time  and  Space  are  not  within  but  with- 
out the  mind ;  and  so  absolutely  independent  of  it  that  they 
cannot  be  conceived  to  become  non-existent  even  were  the 
mind  to  become  non-existent.  Besides  being  posi- 

tively unthinkable  in  what  it  tacitly  denies,  the  theory  of 
Kant  is  equally  unthinkable  in  what  it  openly  affirms.  It 
is  not  simply  that  we  cannot  combine  the  thought  of  Space 
with  the  thought  of  our  own  personality,  and  contemplate 
the  one  as  a  property  of  the  other — though  our  inability 
to  do  this  would  prove  the  inconceivableness  of  the  hypo- 


52  ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS. 

thesis — but  it  is  that  the  hypothesis  carries  in  itself  the  proof 
of  its  own  inconceivableness.  For  if  Space  and  Time  are 
forms  of  thought,  they  can  never  be  thought  of;  since  it  is 
impossible  for  anything  to  be  at  once  the  form  of  thought 
and  the  matter  of  thought.  That  Space  and  Time  are  ob- 
jects of  consciousness,  Kant  emphatically  asserts  by  saying 
that  it  is  impossible  to  suppress  the  consciousness  of  them. 
How  then,  if  they  are  objects  of  consciousness,  can  they  at 
the  same  time  be  conditions  of  consciousness  ?  If  Space  and 
Time  are  the  conditions  under -which  we  think,  then  when 
we  think  of  Space  and  Time  themselves,  our  thoughts  must 
be  unconditioned;  and  if  there  can  thus  be  unconditioned 
thoughts,  what  becomes  of  the  theory  ? 

It  results  therefore  that  Space  and  Time  are  wholly  in- 
comprehensible. The  immediate  knowledge  which  we 
seem  to  have  of  them,  proves,  when  examined,  to  be  total 
ignorance.  While  our  belief  in  their  objective  reality  is  in- 
surmountable, we  are  unable  to  give  any  rational  account 
of  it.  And  to  posit  the  alternative  belief  (possible  to  state 
but  impossible  to  realize)  is  merely  to  multiply  irration- 
alities. 

§  16.  Were  it  not  for  the  necessities  of  the  argument,  it 
would  be  inexcusable  to  occupy  the  reader's  attention  with 
the  threadbare,  and  yet  unended,  controversy  respecting  the 
divisibility  of  matter.  Matter  is  either  infinitely  divisible 
or  it  is  not:  no  third  possibility  can  be  named.  Which  of 
the  alternatives  shall  we  accept?  If  we  say  that  Matter  is 
infinitely  divisible,  we  commit  ourselves  to  a  supposition  not 
realizable  in  thought.  We  can  bisect  and  re-bisect  a  body, 
and  continually  repeating  the  act  until  we  reduce  its  parts  to 
a  size  no  longer  physically  divisible,  may  then  mentally  con- 
tinue the  process  without  limit.  To  do  this,  however,  is 
not  really  to  conceive  the  infinite  divisibility  of  matter,  but 
to  form  a  symbolic  conception  incapable  of  expansion  into 
a  real  one,  and  not  admitting  of  other  verification.    Really 


ULTIMATE   SCIENTIFIC   IDEAS.  53 

to  conceive  the  infinite  divisibility  of  matter,  is  mentally 
to  follow  out  the  divisions  to  infinity;  and  to  do  this  would 
require  infinite  time.  On  the  other  hand,  to  assert  that  mat- 
ter is  not  infinitely  divisible,  is  to  assert  that  it  is  reducible 
to  parts  which  no  conceivable  power  can  divide;  and  this 
verbal  supposition  can  no  more  be  represented  in  thought 
than  the  other.  For  each  of  such  ultimate  parts,  did  they 
exist,  must  have  an  under  and  an  upper  surface,  a  right  and 
a  left  side,  like  any  larger  fragment.  Now  it  is  impossible 
to  imagine  its  sides  so  near  that  no  plane  of  section  can  be 
conceived  between  them;  and  however  great  be  the  as- 
sumed force  of  cohesion,  it  is  impossible  to  shut  out  the 
idea  of  a  greater  force  capable  of  overcoming  it.  So  that 
to  human  intelligence  the  one  hypothesis  is  no  more  accept- 
able than  the  other;  and  yet  the  conclusion  that  one  or 
other  must  agree  with  the  fact,  seems  to  human  intelligence 
unavoidable. 

Again,  leaving  this  insoluble  question,  let  us  ask 
whether  substance  has,  in  reality,  anything  like  that  extend- 
ed solidity  which  it  presents  to  our  consciousness.  The  por- 
tion of  space  occupied  by  a  piece  of  metal,  seems  to  eyes  and 
fingers  perfectly  filled:  we  perceive  a  homogeneous,  resist- 
ing mass,  without  any  breach  of  continuity.  Shall  we  then 
say  that  Matter  is  as  actually  solid  as  it  appears?  Shall  we 
say  that  whether  it  consists  of  an  infinitely  divisible  element 
or  of  ultimate  units  incapable  of  further  division,  its  parts 
are  everywhere  in  actual  contact?  To  assert  as  much  en- 
tangles us  in  insuperable  difficulties.  Were  Matter  thus 
absolutely  solid,  it  would  be,  what  it  is  not — absolutely  in- 
compressible; since  compressibility,  implying  the  nearer  ap- 
proach of  constituent  parts,  is  not  thinkable  unless  there  is 
unoccupied  space  between  the  parts.  Nor  is  this  all.  It  is 
an  established  mechanical  truth,  that  if  a  bodv,  moving;  at 
a  given  velocity,  strikes  an  equal  body  at  rest  in  such  wise 
that  the  two  move  on  together,  their  joint  velocity  will  be 
but  half  that  of  the  striking  body.     Now  it  is  a  law  of 


54  ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS. 

which  the  negation  is  inconceivable,  that  in  passing  from 
any  one  degree  of  magnitude  to  any  other,  all  intermediate 
degrees  must  be  passed  through.  Or,  in  the  case  before  us, 
a  body  moving  at  velocity  4,  cannot,  by  collision,  be  re- 
duced to  velocity  2,  without  passing  through  all  velocities 
between  4  and  2.  But  were  Matter  truly  solid — were  its 
units  absolutely  incompressible  and  in  absolute  contact — 
this  "  law  of  continuity,"  as  it  is  called,  would  be  broken  in 
every  case  of  collision.  For  when,  of  two  such  units,  one 
moving  at  velocity  4  strikes  another  at  rest,  the  striking- 
unit  must  have  its  velocity  4  instantaneously  reduced  to  ve- 
locity 2 ;  must  pass  from  velocity  4  to  velocity  2  without  any 
lapse  of  time,  and  without  passing  through  intermediate 
velocities;  must  be  moving  with  velocities  4  and  2  at  the 
same  instant,  which  is  impossible. 

The  supposition  that  Matter  is  absolutely  solid  being 
untenable,  there  presents  itself  the  Newtonian  supposition, 
that  it  consists  of  solid  atoms  not  in  contact  but  acting  on 
each  other  by  attractive  and  repulsive  forces,  varying  with 
the  distances.  To  assume  this,  however,  merely  shifts  the 
difficulty:  the  problem  is  simply  transferred  from  the  ag- 
gregated masses  of  matter  to  these  hypothetical  atoms.  For 
granting  that  Matter,  as  we  perceive  it,  is  made  up  of  such 
dense  extended  units  surrounded  by  atmospheres  of  force, 
the  question  still  arises — What  is  the  constitution  of  these 
units?  AVe  have  no  alternative  but  to  regard  each  of  them 
as  a  small  piece  of  matter.  Looked  at  through  a  mental 
microscope,  each  becomes  a  mass  of  substance  such  as  we 
have  just  been  contemplating.  Exactly  the  same  inquiries 
may  be  made  respecting  the  parts  of  which  each  atom  con- 
sists ;  while  exactly  the  same  difficulties  stand  in  the  way  of 
every  answer.  And  manifestly,  even  were  the  hypothetical 
atom  assumed  to  consist  of  still  minuter  ones,  the  difficulty 
would  re-appear  at  the  next  step ;  nor  could  it  be  got  rid  of 
even  by  an  infinite  series  of  such  assumptions. 

Boscovich's  conception  yet  remains  to  us.     Seeing  that 


ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS.  55 

Matter  could  not,  as  Leibnitz  suggested,  be  composed  of  un- 
extended  monads  (since  the  juxta-position  of  an  infinity  of 
points  having  no  extension,  could  not  produce  that  exten- 
sion which  matter  possesses) ;  and  perceiving  objections  to 
the  view  entertained  by  Newton;  Boscovich  proposed  an  in- 
termediate theory,  uniting,  as  he  considered,  the  advantages 
of  both  and  avoiding  their  difficulties.  His  theory  is,  that 
the  constituents  of  Matter  are  centres  of  force — points  with- 
out dimensions,  which  attract  and  repel  each  other  in  such- 
wise  as  to  be  kept  at  specific  distances  apart.  And  he 
argues,  mathematically,  that  the  forces  possessed  by  such 
centres  might  so  vary  with  the  distances,  that  under  given 
conditions  the  centres  would  Temain  in  stable  equilibrium 
with  definite  interspaces;  and  yet,  under  other  conditions, 
would  maintain  larger  or  smaller  interspaces.  This  specu- 
lation however,  ingeniously  as  it  is  elaborated,  and  eluding 
though  it  does  various  difficulties,  posits  a  proposition  which 
cannot  by  any  effort  be  represented  in  thought:  it  escapes 
all  the  inconceivabilities  above  indicated,  by  merging  them 
in  the  one  inconceivability  with  which  it  sets  out.  A  centre 
of  force  absolutely  without  extension  is  unthinkable:  an- 
swering to  these  words  we  can  form  nothing  more  than  a 
symbolic  conception  of  the  illegitimate  order.  The  idea  of 
resistance  cannot  be  separated  in  thought  from  the  idea  of 
an  extended  body  which  offers  resistance.  To  suppose  that 
central  forces  can  reside  in  points  not  infinitesimally  small 
but  occupying  no  space  whatever — points  having  position 
only,  with  nothing  to  mark  their  position — points  in  no  re- 
spect distinguishable  from  the  surrounding  points  that,  are 
not  centres  of  force; — to  suppose  this,  is  utterly  beyond 
human  power. 

Here  it  may  possibly  be  said,  that  though  all  hypotheses 
respecting  the  constitution  of  Matter  commit  us  to  incon- 
ceivable conclusions  when  logically  developed,  yet  we  have 
reason  to  think  that  one  of  them  corresponds  with  the  fact. 
Though  the  conception  of  Matter  as  consisting  of  dense  in- 


56  ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS. 

divisible  units,  is  symbolic  and  incapable  of  being  complete- 
ly thought  out,  it  may  yet  be  supposed  to  find  indirect  veri- 
fication in  the  truths  of  chemistry.  These,  it  is  argued, 
necessitate  the  belief  that  Matter  consists  of  particles  of  spe- 
cific weights,  and  therefore  of  specific  sizes.  The  general 
law  of  definite  proportions  seems  impossible  on  any  other 
condition  than  the  existence  of  ultimate  atoms;  and  though 
the  combining  weights  of  the  respective  elements  are  termed 
by  chemists  their  "  equivalents,"  for  the  purpose  of  avoid- 
ing a  questionable  assumption,  we  are  unable  to  think  of 
the  combination  of  such  definite  weights,  without  supposing 
it  to  take  place  between  definite  numbers  of  definite  parti- 
cles. And  thus  it  would  appear  that  the  Newtonian  view  is 
at  any  rate  preferable  to  that  of  Boscovich.  A  dis- 

ciple of  Boscovich,  however,  may  reply  that  his  master's 
theory  is  involved  in  that  of  Newton ;  and  cannot  indeed  be 
escaped.  "  What,"  he  may  ask,  "  is  it  that  holds  together 
the  parts  of  these  ultimate  atoms?  "  "  A  cohesive  force," 
his  opponent  must  answer.  "  And  what,"  he  may  continue, 
"  is  it  that  holds  together  the  parts  of  any  fragments  into 
which,  by  sufficient  force,  an  ultimate  atom  might  be 
broken?"  Again  the  answer  must  be — a  cohesive  force. 
"  And  what,"  he  may  still  ask,  "  if  the  ultimate  atom  were, 
as  we  can  imagine  it  to  be,  reduced  to  parts  as  small  in  pro- 
portion to  it,  as  it  is  in  proportion  to  a  tangible  mass  of 
matter — what  must  give  each  part  the  ability  to  sustain  it- 
self, and  to  occupy  space?  "  Still  there  is  no  answer  but — a 
cohesive  force.  Carry  the  process  in  thought  as  far  as  we 
may,  until  the  extension  of  the  parts  is  less  than  can  be  im- 
agined, we  still  cannot  escape  the  admission  of  forces  by 
which  the  extension  is  upheld;  and  we  can  find  no  limit 
until  we  arrive  at  the  conception  of  centres  of  force  without 
any  extension. 

Matter  then,  in  its  ultimate  nature,  is  as  absolutely  in- 
comprehensible as  Space  and  Time.  Frame  what  suppo- 
sitions we  may,  we  find  on  tracing  out  their  implications 


ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC   IDEAS.  57 

that  they  leave  us  nothing  but  a  choice  between  opposite 
absurdities. 

§  17.  A  body  impelled  by  the  hand  is  clearly  perceived 
to  move,  and  to  move  in  a  definite  direction :  there  seems  at 
first  sight  no  possibility  of  doubting  that  its  motion  is  real, 
or  that  it  is  towards  a  given  point.  Yet  it  is  easy  to  show  that 
we  not  only  may  be,  but  usually  are,  quite  wrong  in  both 
these  judgments.  Here,  for  instance,  is  a  ship  which,  for 
simplicity's  sake,  we  will  suppose  to  he  anchored  at  the  equa- 
tor with  her  head  to  the  West.  When  the  captain  walks 
from  stem  to  stern,  in  what  direction  does  he  move  ?  East  is 
the  obvious  answer — an  answer  which  for  the  moment  may 
pass  without  criticism.  But  now  the  anchor  is  heaved,  and 
the  vessel  sails  to  the  West  with  a  velocity  equal  to  that  at 
which  the  captain  walks.  In  what  direction  does  he  now 
move  when  he  goes  from  stem  to  stern?  You  cannot  say 
East,  for  the  vessel  is  carrying  him  as  fast  towards  the  West 
as  he  walks  to  the  East;  and  you  cannot  say  West  for  the 
converse  reason.  In  respect  to  surrounding  space  he  is 
stationary;  though  to  all  on  board  the  ship  he  seems  to  be 
moving.  But  now  are  we  quite  sure  of  this  conclusion? 
— Is  he  really  stationary?  When  we  take  into  account  the 
Earth's  motion  round  its  axis,  we  find  that  instead  of  being 
stationary  he  is  travelling  at  the  rate  of  1000  miles  per  hour 
to  the  East ;  so  that  neither  the  perception  of  one  who  looks 
at  him,  nor  the  inference  of  one  who  allows  for  the  ship's 
motion,  is  anything  like  the  truth.  Nor  indeed,  on  further 
consideration,  shall  we  find  this  revised  conclusion  to  be 
much  better.  Eor  we  have  forgotten  to  allow  for  the 
Earth's  motion  in  its  orbit.  This  being  some  68,000  miles 
per  hour,  it  follows  that,  assuming  the  time  to  be  midday, 
he  is  moving,  not  at  the  rate  of  1000  miles  per  hour  to  the 
East,  but  at  the  rate  of  67,000  miles  per  hour  to  the  West. 
!N"ay,  not  even  now  have  we  discovered  the  true  rate  and  the 
true  direction  of  his  movement.  With  the  Earth's  progress 
6 


58  ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS. 

in  its  orbit,  we  have  to  join  that  of  the  whole  Solar  system 
towards  the  constellation  Hercules;  and  when  we  do  this, 
we  perceive  that  he  is  moving  neither  East  nor  West,  but  in 
a  line  inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  Ecliptic,  and  at  a  velocity 
greater  or  less  (according  to  the  time  of  the  year)  than  that 
above  named.  To  which  let  us  add,  that  were  the  dynamic 
arrangements  of  our  sidereal  system  fully  known  to  us,  we 
should  probably  discover  the  direction  and  rate  of  his  actual 
movement  to  differ  considerably  even  from  these.  How 

illusive  are  our  ideas  of  Motion,  is  thus  made  sufficiently 
manifest.  That  which  seems  moving  proves  to  be  station- 
ary; that  which  seems  stationary  proves  to  be  moving; 
while  that  which  we  conclude  to  be  going  rapidly  in  one 
direction,  turns  out  to  be  going  much  more  rapidly  in  the 
opposite  direction.  And  so  we  are  taught  that  what  we  are 
conscious  of  is  not  the  real  motion  of  any  object,  either  in  its 
rate  or  direction;  but  merely  its  motion  as  measured  from 
an  assigned  position — either  the  position  we  ourselves  oc- 
cupy or  some  other.  Yet  in  this  very  process  of  concluding 
that  the  motions  we  perceive  are  not  the  real  motions,  we 
tacitly  asuine  that  there  are  real  motions.  In  revising  our 
successive  judgments  concerning  a  body's  course  or  velo- 
city, we  take  for  granted  that  there  is  an  actual  course  and 
an  actual  velocity — we  take  for  granted  that  there  are  fixed 
points  in  space  with  respect  to  which  all  motions  are  abso- 
lute ;  and  we  find  it  impossible  to  rid  ourselves  of  this  idea. 
Nevertheless,  absolute  motion  cannot  even  be  imagined, 
much  less  known.  Motion  as  taking  place  apart  from  those 
limitations  of  space  which  we  habitually  associate  with  it,  is 
totally  unthinkable.  Eor  motion  is  change  of  place ;  but  in 
unlimited  space,  change  of  place  is  inconceivable,  because 
place  itself  is  inconceivable.  Place  can  be  conceived  only  by 
reference  to  other  places;  and  in  the  absence  of  objects  dis- 
persed through  space,  a  place  could  be  conceived  only  in 
relation  to  the  limits  of  space;  whence  it  follows  that  in 
unlimited  space,  place  cannot  be  conceived — all  places  must 


ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS.  59 

be  equidistant  from  boundaries  that  do  not  exist.  Thus 
while  we  are  obliged  to  think  that  there  is  an  absolute  mo- 
tion, we  find  absolute  motion  incomprehensible. 

Another  insuperable  difficulty  presents  itself  when 
we  contemplate  the  transfer  of  Motion.  Habit  blinds 
us  to  the  marvelousness  of  this  phenomenon.  Familiar 
with  the  fact  from  childhood,  we  see  nothing  remark- 
able in  the  ability  of  a  moving  thing  to  generate 
movement  in  a  thing  that  is  stationary.  It  is,  how- 
ever, impossible  to  understand  it.  In  what  respect 
does  a  body  after  impact  differ  from  itself  before  impact? 
What  is  this  added  to  it  which  does  not  sensibly  affect  any 
of  its  properties  and  yet  enables  it  to  traverse  space? 
Here  is  an  object  at  rest  and  here  is  the  same  object  moving. 
In  the  one  state  it  has  no  tendency  to  change  its  place ;  but 
in  the  other  it  is  obliged  at  each  instant  to  assume  a  new 
position.  What  is  it  which  will  for  ever  go  on  producing 
this  effect  without  being  exhausted?  and  how  does  it  dwell 
in  the  object?  The  motion  you  say  has  been  communicated. 
But  how? — What  has  been  communicated?  The  striking 
body  has  not  transferred  a  thing  to  the  body  struck ;  and  it 
is  equally  out  of  the  question  to  say  that  it  has  transferred 
an  attribute.     What  then  has  it  transferred? 

Once  more  there  is  the  old  puzzle  concerning  the  con- 
nexion between  Motion  and  Rest.  We  daily  witness  the 
gradual  retardation  and  final  stoppage  of  things  projected 
from  the  hand  or  otherwise  impelled ;  and  we  equally  often 
witness  the  change  from  Rest  to  Motion  produced  by  the 
application  of  force.  But  truly  to  represent  these  transi- 
tions in  thought,  we  find  impossible.  For  a  breach  of  the 
law  of  continuity  seems  necessarily  involved;  and  yet  no 
breach  of  it  is  conceivable.  A  body  travelling  at  a  given 
velocity  cannot  be  brought  to  a  state  of  rest,  or  no  velocity, 
without  passing  through  all  intermediate  velocities.  At 
first  sight  nothing  seems  easier  than  to  imagine  it  doing  this. 
It  is  quite  possible  to  think  of  its  motion  as  diminishing  in- 


60  ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC   IDEAS. 

sensibly  until  it  becomes  infinitesimal ;  and  many  will  think 
equally  possible  to  pass  in  thought  from  infinitesimal  motion 
to  no  motion.  But  this  is  an  error.  Mentally  follow  out  the 
decreasing  velocity  as  long  as  you  please,  and  there  still 
remains  some  velocity.  Halve  and  again  halve  the  rate  of 
movement  for  ever,  yet  movement  still  exists;  and  the 
smallest  movement  is  separated  by  an  impassable  gap  from 
no  movement.  As  something,  however  minute,  is  infinitely 
great  in  comparison  with  nothing ;  so  is  even  the  least  con- 
ceivable motion,  infinite  as  compared  with  rest.  The 
converse  perplexities  attendant  on  the  transition  from  Rest 
to  Motion,  need  not  be  specified.  These,  equally  with  the 
foregoing,  show  us  that  though  we  are  obliged  to  think  of 
such  changes  as  actually  occurring,  their  occurrence  cannot 
be  realized. 

Thus  neither  when  considered  in  connexion  with  Space, 
nor  when  considered  in  connexion  with  Matter,  nor  when 
considered  in  connexion  with  Rest,  do  we  find  that  Motion 
is  truly  cognizable.  All  efforts  to  understand  its  essential 
nature  do  but  bring  us  to  alternative  impossibilities  of 
thought. 

§  18.  On  lifting  a  chair,  the  force  exerted  we  regard  as 
equal  to  that  antagonistic  force  called  the  weight  of  the 
chair;  and  we  cannot  think  of  these  as  equal  without  think- 
ing of  them  as  like  in  kind;  since  equality  is  conceivable 
only  between  things  that  are  connatural.  The  axiom  that 
action  and  reaction  are  equal  and  in  opposite  directions, 
commonly  exemplified  by  this  very  instance  of  muscular 
effort  versus  weight,  cannot  be  mentally  realized  on  any 
other  condition.  Yet,  contrariwise,  it  is  incredible  that  the 
force  as  existing  in  the  chair  really  resembles  the  force  as 
present  to  our  minds.  It  scarcely  needs  to  point  out  that  the 
weight  of  the  chair  produces  in  us  various  feelings  according 
as  we  support  it  by  a  single  finger,  or  the  whole  hand,  or  the 
leg;  and  hence  to  argue  that  as  it  cannot  be  like  all  these 


ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS.  61 

sensations  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  it  like  any.  It  suf- 
fices to  remark  that  since  the  force  as  known  to  us  is  an 
affection  of  consciousness,  we  cannot  conceive  the  force  ex- 
isting in  the  chair  under  the  same  form  without  endowing 
the  chair  with  consciousness.  So  that  it  is  absurd  to  think 
of  Force  as  in  itself  like  our  sensation  of  it,  and  yet  neces- 
sary so  to  think  of  it  if  we  realize  it  in  consciousness  at  all. 
How,  again,  can  we  understand  the  connexion  between 
Force  and  Matter?  Matter  is  known  to  us  only  through  its 
manifestations  of  Force:  our  ultimate  test  of  Matter  is  the 
ability  to  resist:  abstract  its  resistance  and  there  remains 
nothing  but  empty  extension.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  re- 
sistance is  equally  unthinkable  apart  from  Matter — apart 
from  something  extended.  Not  only,  as  pointed  out  some 
pages  back,  are  centres  of  force  devoid  of  extension  unimag- 
inable; but,  as  an  inevitable  corollary,  we  cannot  imagine 
either  extended  or  unextended  centres  of  force  to  attract 
and  repel  other  such  centres  at  a  distance,  without  the  inter- 
mediation of  some  kind  of  matter.  We  have  here  to  remark, 
what  could  not  without  anticipation  be  remarked  when 
treating  of  Matter,  that  the  hypothesis  of  Newton,  equally 
with  that  of  Boscovich,  is  open  to  the  charge  that  it  supposes 
one  thing  to  act  upon  another  through  a  space  which  is  abso- 
lutely empty — a  supposition  which  cannot  be  represented 
in  thought.  This  charge  is  indeed  met  by  the  introduction 
of  a  hypothetical  fluid  existing  between  the  atoms  or  cen- 
tres. But  the  problem  is  not  thus  solved :  it  is  simply  shift- 
ed, and  re-appears  when  the  constitution  of  this  fluid  is  in- 
quired into.  How  impossible  it  is  to  elude  the  diffi- 
culty presented  by  the  transfer  of  Force  through  space,  is 
best  seen  in  the  case  of  astronomical  forces.  The  Sun  acts 
upon  us  in  such  way  as  to  produce  the  sensations  of  light  and 
heat ;  and  we  have  ascertained  that  between  the  cause  as  ex- 
isting in  the  Sun,  and  the  effect  as  experienced  on  the  Earth, 
a  lapse  of  about  eight  minutes  occurs:  whence  unavoidably 
result  in  us,  the  conceptions  of  both  a  force  and  a  motion. 


62  ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS. 

So  that  for  the  assumption  of  a  luminif erous  ether,  there  is 
the.  defence,  not  only  that  the  exercise  of  force  through 
95,000,000  of  miles  of  absolute  vacuum  is  inconceivable, 
but  also  that  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  motion  in  the  ab- 
sence of  something  moved.  Similarly  in  the  case  of  gravi- 
tation. Newton  described  himself  as  unable  to  think  that 
the  attraction  of  one  body  for  another  at  a  distance,  could  be 
exerted  in  the  absence  of  an  intervening  medium.  But  now 
let  us  ask  how  much  the  forwarder  we  are  if  an  intervening 
medium  be  assumed.  This  ether  whose  undulations  ac- 
cording to  the  received  hypothesis  constitute  heat  and  light, 
and  which  is  the  vehicle  of  gravitation — how  is  it  consti- 
tuted ?  We  must  regard  it,  in  the  way  that  physicists  do  re- 
gard it,  as  composed  of  atoms  which  attract  and  repel  each 
other — infinitesimal  it  may  be  in  comparison  with  those  of 
ordinary  matter,  but  still  atoms.  And  remembering  that 
this  ether  is  imponderable,  we  are  obliged  to  conclude  that 
the  ratio  between  the  interspaces  of  these  atoms  and  the 
atoms  themselves  is  incommensurably  greater  than  the  like 
ratio  in  ponderable  matter;  else  the  densities  could  not  be 
incommensurable.  Instead  then  of  a  direct  action  by  the 
Sun  upon  the  Earth  without  anything  intervening,  we  have 
to  conceive  the  Sun's  action  propagated  through  a  medium 
whose  molecules  are  probably  as  small  relatively  to  their  in- 
terspaces as  are  the  Sun  and  Earth  compared  with  the  space 
between  them:  we  have  to  conceive  these  infinitesimal 
molecules  acting  on  each  other  through  absolutely  vacant 
spaces  which  are  immense  in  comparison  with  their  own  di- 
mensions. How  is  this  conception  easier  than  the  other? 
"We  still  have  mentally  to  represent  a  body  as  acting  where 
it  is  not,  and  in  the  absence  of  anything  by  which  its  action 
may  be  transferred ;  and  what  matters  it  whether  this  takes 
place  on  a  large  or  a  small  scale  ?  We  see  therefore  that 

the  exercise  of  Eorce  is  altogether  unintelligible.  We  can- 
not imagine  it  except  through  the  instrumentality  of  some- 
thing having  extension;  and  yet  when  we  have  assumed 


ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS.  63 

this  something,  we  find  the  perplexity  is  not  got  rid  of  but 
only  postponed.  We  are  obliged  to  conclude  that  matter, 
whether  ponderable  or  imponderable,  and  whether  aggre- 
gated or  in  its  hypothetical  units,  acts  upon  matter  through 
absolutely  vacant  space ;  and  yet  this  conclusion  is  positively 
unthinkable. 

Yet  another  difficulty  of  conception,  converse  in  nature 
but  equally  insurmountable,  must  be  added.  If,  on  the 
one  hand,  we  cannot  in  thought  see  matter  acting  upon 
matter  through  a  vast  interval  of  space  which  is  absolutely 
void ;  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  gravitation  of  one  particle 
of  matter  towards  another,  and  towards  all  others,  should 
be  absolutely  the  same  whether  the  intervening  space  is 
filled  with  matter  or  not,  is  incomprehensible.  I  lift  from 
the  ground,  and  continue  to  hold,  a  pound  weight.  .Now, 
into  the  vacancy  between  it  and  the  ground,  is  introduced 
a  mass  of  matter  of  any  kind  whatever,  in  any  state  what- 
ever— hot  or  cold,  liquid  or  solid,  transparent  or  opaque, 
light  or  dense ;  and  the  gravitation  of  the  weight  is  entirely 
unaffected.  The  whole  Earth,  as  well  as  each  individual 
of  the  infinity  of  particles  composing  the  Earth,  acts  on  the 
pound  in  absolutely  the  same  way,  whatever  intervenes,  or 
if  nothing  intervenes.  Through  eight  thousand  miles  of  the 
Earth's,  substance,  each  molecule  at  the  antipodes  affects 
each  molecule  of  the  weight  I  hold,  in  utter  indifference  to 
the  fulness  or  emptiness  of  the  space  between  them.  So 
that  each  portion  of  matter  in  its  dealings  with  remote  por- 
tions, treats  all  intervening  portions  as  though  they  did  not 
exist ;  and  yet,  at  the  same  time  it  recognizes  their  existence 
with  scrupulous  exactness  in  its  direct  dealings  with  them. 
We  have  to  regard  gravitation  as  a  force  to  which  every- 
thing in  the  Universe  is  at  once  perfectly  opaque  in  respect  of 
itself  and  perfectly  transparent  in  respect  of  other  things. 

While  then  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  idea  of  Force 
in  itself,  it  is  equally  impossible  to  comprehend  its  mode 
of  exercise. 


64  ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS. 

§  19.  Turning  now  from  the  outer  to  the  inner  world, 
let  us  contemplate,  not  the  agencies  to  which  we  ascribe  our 
subjective  modifications,  but  the  subjective  modifications 
themselves.  These  constitute  a  series.  Difficult  as  we  find 
it  distinctly  to  separate  and  individualize  them,  it  is  never- 
theless beyond  question  that  our  states  of  consciousness  oc- 
cur in  succession.  • 

Is  this  chain  of  states  of  consciousness  infinite  or  finite? 
We  cannot  say  infinite ;  not  only  because  we  have  indirectly 
reached  the  conclusion  that  there  was  a  period  when  it  com- 
menced, but  also  because  all  infinity  is  inconceivable — an 
infinite  series  included.  We  cannot  say  finite;  for  we  have 
no  knowledge  of  either  of  its  ends.  Go  back  in  memory  as 
far  as  we  may,  we  are  wholly  unable  to  identify  our  first 
states  of  consciousness:  the  perspective  of  our  thoughts 
vanishes  in  a  dim  obscurity  where  we  can  make  out  nothing. 
Similarly  at  the  other  extreme.  "We  have  no  immediate 
knowledge  of  a  termination  to  the  series  at  a  future  time; 
and  we  cannot  really  lay  hold  of  that  temporary  termination 
of  the  series  reached  at  the  present  moment.  For  the  state 
of  consciousness  recognized  by  us  as  our  last,  is  not  truly  our 
last.  That  any  mental  affection  may  be  contemplated  as  one 
of  the  series,  it  must  be  remembered — represented  in 
thought,  not  presented.  The  truly  last  state  of  conscious- 
ness is  that  which  is  passing  in  the  very  act  of  contemplating 
a  state  just  past — that  in  which  we  are  thinking  of  the  one 
before  as  the  last.  So  that  the  proximate  end  of  the  chain 
eludes  us,  as  well  as  the  remote  end. 

"  But,"  it  may  be  said,  "  though  we  cannot  directly 
know  consciousness  to  be  finite  in  duration,  because  neither 
of  its  limits  can  be  actually  reached;  yet  we  can  very  well 
conceive  it  to  be  so."  Xo :  not  even  this  is  true.  In  the  first 
place,  we  cannot  conceive  the  terminations  of  that  conscious- 
ness which  alone  we  really  know — our  own — any  more  than 
we  can  j9<?rceive  its  terminations.  For  in  truth  the  two  acts 
are  here  one.     In  either  case  such  terminations  must  be, 


ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC   IDEAS.  65 

as  above  said,  not  presented  in  thought,  but  represented;  and 
they  must  be  represented  as  in  the  act  of  occurring.  Now  to 
represent  the  termination  of  consciousness  as  occurring  in 
ourselves,  is  to  think  of  ourselves  as  contemplating  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  last  state  of  consciousness;  and  this  implies  a 
supposed  continuance  of  consciousness  after  its  last  state, 
which  is  absurd.  In  the  second  place,  if  we  regard  the  mat- 
ter objectively — if  we  study  the  phenomena  as  occurring  in 
others,  or  in  the  abstract,  we  are  equally  foiled.  Conscious- 
ness implies  perpetual  change  and  the  perpetual  establish- 
ment of  relations  between  its  successive  phases.  To  be 
known  at  all,  any  mental  affection  must  be  known  as  such  or 
such — as  like  these  foregoing  ones  or  unlike  those:  if  it  is 
not  thought  of  in  connexion  with  others — not  distinguished 
or  identified  by  comparison  with  others,  it  is  not  recognized 
— is  not  a  state  of  consciousness  at  all.  A  last  state  of  con- 
sciousness, then,  like  any  other,  can  exist  only  through  a  per- 
ception of  its  relations  to  previous  states.  But  such  percep- 
tion of  its  relations  must  constitute  a  state  later  than  the  last, 
which  is  a  contradiction.  Or  to  put  the  difficulty  in  another 
form : — If  ceaseless  change  of  state  is  the  condition  on  which 
alone  consciousness  exists,  then  when  the  supposed  last  state 
has  been  reached  by  the  completion  of  the  preceding  change, 
change  has  ceased;  therefore  consciousness  has  ceased; 
therefore  the  supposed  last  state  is  not  a  state  of  conscious- 
ness at  all;  therefore  there  can  be  no  last  state  of  conscious- 
ness. In  short,  the  perplexity  is  like  that  presented  by  the 
relations  of  Motion  and  Kest.  As  we  found  it  was  impossi- 
ble really  to  conceive  Rest  becoming  Motion  or  Motion 
becoming  Rest;  so  here  we  find  it  is  impossible  really  to 
conceive  either  the  beginning  or  the  ending  of  those  changes 
which  constitute  consciousness. 

Hence,  while  we  are  unable  either  to  believe  or  to  con- 
ceive that  the  duration  of  consciousness  is  infinite,  we  are 
equally  unable  either  to  know  it  as  finite,  or  to  conceive  it 
as  finite. 


66  ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS. 

§  20.  Xor  do  we  meet  with  any  greater  success  when,  in- 
stead of  the  extent  of  consciousness,  we  consider  its  sub- 
stance. The  question — What  is  this  that  thinks?  admits  of 
no  better  solution  than  the  question  to  which  we  have  just 
found  none  but  inconceivable  answers. 

The  existence  of  each  individual  as  known  to  himself, 
has  been  always  held  by  mankind  at  large,  the  most  incon- 
trovertible of  truths.  To  say — "  I  am  as  sure  of  it  as  I  am 
sure  that  I  exist,"  is,  in  common  speech,  the  most  emphatic 
expression  of  certainty.  And  this  fact  of  personal  existence, 
testified  to  by  the  universal  consciousness  of  men,  has  been 
made  the  basis  of  sundry  philosophies;  whence  may  be 
drawn  the  inference,  that  it  is  held  by  thinkers,  as  well  as  by 
the  vulgar,  to  be  beyond  all  facts  unquestionable. 

Belief  in  the  reality  of  self,  is,  indeed,  a  belief  which  no 
hypothesis  enables  us  to  escape.  What  shall  we  say  of  these 
successive  impressions  and  ideas  which  constitute  conscious- 
ness ?  Shall  we  say  that  they  are  the  affections  of  something 
called  mind,  which,  as  being  the  subject  of  them,  is  the  real 
ego  f  If  we  say  this,  we  manifestly  imply  that  the  ego  is  an 
entity.  Shall  we  assert  that  these  impressions  and  ideas  are 
the  mere  superficial  changes  wrought  on  some  thinking  sub- 
stance, but  are  themselves  the  very  body  of  this  substance — 
are  severally  the  modified  forms  which  it  from  moment  to 
moment  assumes?  This  hypothesis,  equally  with  the  fore- 
going, implies  that  the  individual  exists  as  a  permanent  and 
distinct  being;  since  modifications  necessarily  involve  some- 
thing modified.  Shall  we  then  betake  ourselves  to  the  scep- 
tic's position,  and  argue  that  we  know  nothing  more  than  our 
impressions  and  ideas  themselves — that  these  are  to  us  the 
only  existences;  and  that  the  personality  said  to  underlie 
them  is  a  mere  fiction  ?  We  do  not  even  thus  escape ;  since 
this  proposition,  verbally  intelligible  but  really  unthinkable, 
itself  makes  the  assumption  which  it  professes  to  repudiate. 
For  how  can  consciousness  be  wholly  resolved  into  impres- 
sions and  ideas,  when  an  impression  of  necessity  implies 


ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS.  67 

something  impressed?  Or  again,  how  can  the  sceptic  who 
has  decomposed  his  consciousness  into  impressions  and  ideas, 
explain  the  fact  that  he  considers  them  as  his  impressions  and 
ideas?  Or  once  more,  if,  as  he  must,  he  admits  that  he  has 
an  impression  of  his  personal  existence,  what  warrant  can 
he  show  for  rejecting  this  impression  as  unreal  while  he  ac- 
cepts all  his  other  impressions  as  real?  Unless  he  can  give 
satisfactory  answers  to  these  queries,  which  he  cannot,  he 
must  abandon  his  conclusions;  and  must  admit  the  reality 
of  the  individual  mind. 

But  now,  unavoidable  as  is  this  belief — established 
though  it  is  not  only  by  the  assent  of  mankind  at  large,  en- 
dorsed by  divers  philosophers,  but  by  the  suicide  of  the  scep- 
tical argument — it  is  yet  a  belief  admitting  of  no  justifica- 
tion by  reason:  nay,  indeed,  it  is  a  belief  which  reason, 
when  pressed  for  a  distinct  answer,  rejects.  One  of  the  most 
recent  writers  who  has  touched  upon  this  question — Mr 
Mansel — does  indeed  contend  that  in  the  consciousness  of 
self,  we  have  a  piece  of  real  knowledge.  The  validity  of 
immediate  intuition  he  holds  in  this  case  unquestionable: 
remarking  that  "  let  system-makers  say  what  they  will,  the 
unsophisticated  sense  of  mankind  refuses  to  acknowledge 
that  mind  is  but  a  bundle  of  states  of  consciousness,  as  mat- 
ter is  (possibly)  a  bundle  of  sensible  qualities.7'  •  On  which 
position  the  obvious  comment  is,  that  it  does  not  seem  alto- 
gether a  consistent  one  for  a  Kantist,  who  pays  but  small  re- 
spect to  "  the  unsophisticated  sense  of  mankind  "  when  it 
testifies  to  the  objectivity  of  space.  Passing  over  this,  how- 
ever, it  may  readily  be  shown  that  a  cognition  of  self,  prop- 
erly so  called,  is  absolutely  negatived  by  the  laws  of  thought. 
The  fundamental  condition  to  all  consciousness,  emphatic- 
ally insisted  upon  by  Mr  Mansel  in  common  with  Sir  Wil- 
liam Hamilton  and  others,  is  the  antithesis  of  subject  and 
object.  And  on  this  "  primitive  dualism  of  consciousness," 
"  from  which  the  explanations  of  philosophy  must  take  their 
start,"  Mr  Mansel  founds  his  refutation  of  the  German 


68  ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS. 

absolutists.  But  now,  what  is  the  corollary  from  this  doc- 
trine, as  bearing  on  the  consciousness  of  self?  The  mental 
act  in  which  self  is  known,  implies,  like  every  other  mental 
act,  a  perceiving  subject  and  a  perceived  object.  If,  then, 
the  object  perceived  is  self,  what  is  the  subject  that  per- 
ceives (  or  if  it  is  the  true  self  which  thinks,  what  other  self 
can  it  be  that  is  thought  of?  Clearly,  a  true  cognition  of 
self  implies  a  state  in  which  the  knowing  and  the  known  are 
one — in  which  subject  and  object  are  identified;  and  this 
Mr  Hansel  rightly  holds  to  be  the  annihilation  of  both. 

So  that  the  personality  of  which  each  is  conscious,  and 
of  which  the  existence  is  to  each  a  fact  beyond  all  others  the 
most  certain,  is  yet  a  thing  which  cannot  truly  be  known 
at  all:  knowledge  of  it  is  forbidden  by  the  very  nature  of 
thought. 

§  21.  Ultimate  Scientific  Ideas,  then,  are  all  representa- 
tive of  realities  that  cannot  be  comprehended.  After  no 
matter  how  great  a  progress  in  the  colligation  of  facts  and 
the  establishment  of  generalizations  ever  wider  and  wider 
— after  the  merging  of  limited  and  derivative  truths  in 
truths  that  are  larger  and  deeper  has  been  carried  no  matter 
how  far;  the  fundamental  truth  remains  as  much  beyond 
reach  as  ever.  The  explanation  of  that  which  is  explicable, 
does  but  bring  out  into  greater  clearness  the  inexplicable- 
ness  of  that  which  remains  behind.  Alike  in  the  external 
and  the  internal  worlds,  the  man  of  science  sees  himself  in 
the  midst  of  perpetual  changes  of  which  he  can  discover 
neither  the  beginning  nor  the  end.  If,  tracing  back  the 
evolution  of  things,  he  allows  himself  to  entertain  the  hypo- 
thesis that  the  Universe  once  existed  in  a  diffused  form,  he 
finds  it  utterly  impossible  to  conceive  how  this  came  to  be  so; 
and  equally,  if  he  speculates  on  the  future,  he  can  assign  no 
limit  to  the  grand  succession  of  phenomena  ever  unfolding 
themselves  before  him.  In  like  manner  if  he  looks  inward, 
he  perceives  that  both  ends  of  the  thread  of  consciousness 


ULTIMATE  SCIENTIFIC  IDEAS.  69 

are  beyond  his  grasp ;  nay,  even  beyond  his  power  to  think 
of  as  having  existed  or  as  existing  in  time  to  come.  When, 
again,  he  turns  from  the  succession  of  phenomena,  external 
or  internal,  to  their  intrinsic  nature,  he  is  just  as  much  at 
fault.  Supposing  him  in  every  case  able  to  resolve  the  ap- 
pearances, properties,  and  movements  of  things,  into  mani- 
festations of  Force  in  Space  and  Time;  he  still  finds  that 
Force,  Space,  and  Time  pass  all  understanding.  Similarly, 
though  the  analysis  of  mental  actions  may  finally  bring  him 
down  to  sensations,  as  the  original  materials  out  of  which 
all  thought  is  woven,  yet  he  is  little  forwarder;  for  he  can 
give  no  account  either  of  sensations  themselves  or  of  that 
something  which  is  conscious  of  sensations.  Objective  and 
subjective  things  he  thus  ascertains  to  be  alike  inscrutable  in 
their  substance  and  genesis.  In  all  directions  his  investiga- 
tions eventually  bring  him  face  to  face  with  an  insoluble 
enigma;  and  he  ever  more  clearly  perceives  it  to  be  an  in- 
soluble enigma.  He  learns  at  once  the  greatness  and  the  lit- 
tleness of  the  human  intellect — its  power  in  dealing  with  all 
that  comes  within  the  range  of  experience ;  its  impotence  in 
dealing  with  all  that  transcends  experience.  He  realizes 
with  a  special  vividness  the  utter  incomprehensibleness  of 
the  simplest  fact,  considered  in  itself.  He,  more  than  any 
other,  truly  knows  that  in  its  ultimate  essence  nothing  can 
be  known. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    RELATIVITY    OF    ALL    KNOWLEDGE. 

§  22.  The  same  conclusion  is  thus  arrived  at,  from 
whichever  point  we  set  out.  If,  respecting  the  origin  and 
nature  of  things,  we  make  some  assumption,  we  find  that 
through  an  inexorable  logic  it  inevitably  commits  us  to  al- 
ternative impossibilities  of  thought;  and  this  holds  true  of 
every  assumption  that  can  be  imagined.  If,  contrariwise, 
we  make  no  assumption,  but  set  out  from  the  sensible  prop- 
erties of  surrounding  objects,  and,  ascertaining  their  special 
laws  of  dependence,  go  on  to  merge  these  in  laws  more  and 
more  general,  until  we  bring  them  all  under  some  most  gen- 
eral laws ;  we  still  find  ourselves  as  far  as  ever  from  knowing 
what  it  is  which  manifests  these  properties  to  us :  clearly  as 
we  seem  to  know  it,  our  apparent  knowledge  proves  on  ex- 
amination to  be  utterly  irreconcilable  with  itself.  Ultimate 
religious  ideas  and  ultimate  scientific  ideas,  alike  turn  out 
to  be  merely  symbols  of  the  actual,  not  cognitions  of  it. 

The  conviction,  so  reached,  that  human  intelligence  is 
incapable  of  absolute  knowledge,  is  one  that  has  been  slowly 
gaining  ground  as  civilization  has  advanced.  Each  new 
ontological  theory,  from  time  to  time  propounded  in  lieu  of 
previous  ones  shown  to  be  untenable,  has  been  followed  by  a 
new  criticism  leading  to  a  new  scepticism.  All  possible  con- 
ceptions have  been  one  by  one  tried  and  found  wanting;  and 
so  the  entire  field  of  speculation  has  been  gradually  exhaust- 
ed without  positive  result:  the  only  result  arrived  at  being 

70 


THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  71 

the  negative  one  above  stated — that  the  reality  existing 
behind  all  appearances  is,  and  must  ever  be,  unknown.  To 
this  conclusion  almost  every  thinker  of  note  has  subscribed. 
"  With  the  exception,"  says  Sir  William  Hamilton,  "  of  a 
few  late  Absolutist  theorisers  in  Germany,  this  is,  perhaps, 
the  truth  of  all  others  most  harmoniously  re-echoed  by 
every  philosopher  of  every  school."  And  among  these  he 
names — Protagoras,  Aristotle,  St.  Augustin,  Boethius, 
Averroes,  Albertus  Magnus,  Gerson,  Leo  Hebrseus,  Me- 
lancthon,  Scaliger,  Francis  Piccolomini,  Giordano  Bruno, 
Campanella,  Bacon,  Spinoza,  Newton,  Kant. 

It  yet  remains  to  point  out  how  this  belief  may  be  estab- 
lished rationally,  as  well  as  empirically.  Not  only  is  it  that, 
as  in  the  earlier  thinkers  above  named,  a  vague  perception  of 
the  inscrutableness  of  things  in  themselves  results  from  dis- 
covering the  illusiveness  of  sense-impressions ;  and  not  only 
is  it  that,  as  shown  in  the  foregoing  chapters,  definite  experi- 
ments evolve  alternative  impossibilities  of  thought  out  of 
every  ultimate  conception  we  can  frame;  but  it  is  that  the 
relativity  of  our  knowledge  is  demonstrable  analytically. 
The  induction  drawn  from  general  and  special  experiences, 
may  be  confirmed  by  a  deduction  from  the  nature  of  our 
intelligence.  Two  ways  of  reaching  such  a  deduction  exist. 
Proof  that  our  cognitions  are  not,  and  never  can  be,  abso- 
lute, is  obtainable  by  analyzing  either  the  product  of 
thought,  or  the  process  of  thought.    Let  us  analyze  each. 

§  23.  If,  when  walking  through  the  fields  some  day  in 
September,  you  hear  a  rustle  a  few  yards  in  advance,  and 
on  observing  the  ditch-side  where  it  occurs,  see  the  herbage 
agitated,  you  will  probably  turn  towards  the  spot  to  learn  by 
what  this  sound  and  motion  are  produced.  As  you  approach 
there  flutters  into  the  ditch,  a  partridge;  on  seeing  which 
your  curiosity  is  satisfied— you  have  what  you  call  an  expla- 
nation of  the  appearances.  The  explanation,  mark,  amounts 
to  this ;  that  whereas  throughout  life  you  have  had  countless 


72  THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL   KNOWLEDGE. 

experiences  of  disturbance  among  small  stationary  bodies, 
accompanying  the  movement  of  other  bodies  among  them, 
and  have  generalized  the  relation  between  such  disturbances 
and  such  movements,  you  consider  this  particular  disturb- 
ance explained,  on  finding  it  to  present,  an  instance  of  the 
like  relation.  Suppose  you  catch  the  partridge;  and, 

wishing  to  ascertain  why  it  did  not  escape,  examine  it,  and 
find  at  one  spot,  a  slight  trace  of  blood  upon  its  feathers. 
You  now  tinder  stand  as  you  say,  what  has  disabled  the  par- 
tridge. It  has  been  wounded  by  a  sportsman — adds  another 
case  to  the  many  cases  already  seen  by  you,  of  birds  being 
killed  or  injured  by  the  shot  discharged  at  them  from  fowl- 
ing-pieces. And  in  assimilating  this  case  to  other  such  cases, 
consists  your  understanding  of  it.  But  now,  on  con- 

sideration, a  difficulty  suggests  itself.  Only  a  single  shot 
has  struck  the  partridge,  and  that  not  in  a  vital  place:  the 
wings  are  uninjured,  as  are  also  those  muscles  which  move 
them;  and  the  creature  proves  by  its  struggles  that  it  has 
abundant  strength.  Why  then,  you  inquire  of  yourself, 
does  it  not  fly?  Occasion  favouring,  you  put  the  question 
to  an  anatomist,  who  furnishes  you  with  a  solution.  He 
points  out  that  this  solitary  shot  has  passed  close  to  the  place 
at  which  the  nerve  supplying  the  wing-muscles  of  one  side, 
diverges  from  the  spine;  and  that  a  slight  injury  to  this 
nerve,  extending  even  to  the  rupture  of  a  few  fibres,  may, 
by  preventing  a  perfect  co-ordination  in  the  actions  of  the 
two  wings,  destroy  the  power  of  flight.  You  are  no  longer 
puzzled.  But  what  has  happened? — what  has  changed 
your  state  from  one  of  perplexity  to  one  of  comprehension  f 
Simply  the  disclosure  of  a  class  of  previously  known  cases, 
along  with  which  you  can  include  this  case.  The  connex- 
ion between  lesions  of  the  nervous  system  and  paralysis  of 
limbs  has  been  already  many  times  brought  under  your  no- 
tice ;  and  you  here  find  a  relation  of  cause  and  effect  that  is 
essentially  similar. 

Let  us  suppose  you  are  led  on  to  make  further  inquiries 


THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  73 

concerning  organic  actions,  which,  conspicuous  and  remark- 
able as  they  are,  you  had  not  before  cared  to  understand. 
How  is  respiration  effected?  you  ask — why  does  air  periodi- 
cally rush  into  the  lungs?  The  answer  is  that  in  the  higher 
vertebrata,  as  in  ourselves,  influx  of  air  is  caused  by  an  en- 
largement of  the  thoracia  cavity,  due,  partly  to  depression 
of  the  diaphragm,  partly  to  elevation  of  the  ribs.  But  how 
does  elevation  of  the  ribs  enlarge  the  cavity?  In  reply  the 
anatomist  shows  you  that  the  plane  of  each  pair  of  ribs 
makes  an  acute  angle  with  the  spine ;  that  this  angle  widens 
when  the  movable  ends  of  the  ribs  are  raised ;  and  he  makes 
you  realize  the  consequent  dilatation  of  the  cavity,  by  point- 
ing out  how  the  area  of  a  parallelogram  increases  as  its  an- 
gles approach  to  right  angles — you  understand  this  special 
fact  when  you  see  it  to  be  an  instance  of  a  general  geometri- 
cal fact.  There  still  arises,  however,  the  question — why 
does  the  air  rush  into  this  enlarged  cavity  ?  To  which  comes 
the  answer  that,  when  the  thoracic  cavity  is  enlarged,  the 
contained  air,  partially  relieved  from  pressure,  expands,  and 
so  loses  some  of  its  resisting  power;  that  hence  it  opposes  to 
the  pressure  of  the  external  air  a  less  pressure;  and  that  as 
air,  like  every  other  fluid,  presses  equally  in  all  directions, 
motion  must  result  along  any  line  in  which  the  resistance  is 
less  than  elsewhere;  whence  follows  an  inward  current. 
And  this  interpretation  you  recognize  as  one,  when  a  few 
facts  of  like  kind,  exhibited  more  plainly  in  a  visible  fluid 
such  as  water,  are  cited  in  illustration.  Again,  when 

it  was  pointed  out  that  the  limbs  are  compound  levers  acting 
in  essentially  the  same  way  as  levers  of  iron  or  wood,  you 
might  consider  yourself  as  having  obtained  a  partial  ration- 
ale of  animal  movements.  The  contraction  of  a  muscle, 
seeming  before  utterly  unaccountable,  would  seem  less  un- 
accountable were  you  shown  how,  by  a  galvanic  current,  a 
series  of  soft  iron  magnets  could  be  made  to  shorten  itself, 
through  the  attraction  of  each  magnet  for  its  neighbours: 
— an  alleged  analogy  which  especially  answers  the  pur- 
7 


74  THE   RELATIVITY  OF   ALL   KNOWLEDGE. 

pose  of  our  argument;  since,  whether  real  or  fancied,  it 
equally  illustrates  the  mental  illumination  that  results  on 
finding  a  class  of  cases  within  which  a  particular  case  may 
possibly  be  included.  And  it  may  be  further  noted  how,  in 
the  instance  here  named,  an  additional  feeling  of  compre- 
hension arises  on  remembering  that  the  influence  conveyed 
through  the  nerves  to  the  muscles,  is,  though  not  positively 
electric,  yet  a  form  of  force  nearly  allied  to  the  elec- 
tric. Similarly  when  you  learn  that  animal  heat  arises 
from  chemical  combination,  and  bo  is  evolved  as  heat  is 
evolved  in  other  chemical  combinations — when  you  learn 
that  the  absorption  of  nutrient  fluids  through  the  coats  of 
the  intestines,  is  an  instance  of  osmotic  action — when  you 
learn  that  the  changes  undergone  by  food  during  digestion, 
are  like  changes  artificially  producible  in  the  laboratory; 
you  regard  yourself  as  hnowing  something  about  the  natures 
of  these  phenomena. 

Observe  now  what  we  have  been  doing.  Turning  to  the 
general  question,  let  us  note  where  these  successive  interpre- 
tations have  carried  us.  ^Ve  began  with  quite  special  and 
concrete  facts.  In  explaining  each,  and  afterwards  explain- 
ing the  more  general  facts  of  which  they  are  instances,  we 
have  got  down  to  certain  highly  general  facts: — to  a  geo- 
metrical principle  or  property  of  space,  to  a  simple  law  of 
mechanical  action,  to  a  law  of  fluid  equilibrium — to  truths 
in  physics,  in  chemistry,  in  thermology,  in  electricity.  The 
particular  phenomena  with  which  we  set  out,  have  been 
merged  in  larger  and  larger  groups  of  phenomena;  and  as 
they  have  been  so  merged,  we  have  arrived  at  solutions  that 
we  consider  profound  in  proportion  as  this  process  has  been 
carried  far.  Still  deeper  explanations  are  simply  further 
steps  in  the  same  direction.  TThen,  for  instance,  it  is  i- 
why  the  law  of  action  of  the  lever  is  what  it  is,  or  why  fluid 
equilibrium  and  fluid  motion  exhibit  the  relations  which 
they  do,  the  answer  furnished  by  mathematicians  consists 
in  the  disclosure  of  the  principle  of  virtual  velocities — a 


THE  RELATIVITY   OF   ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  75 

principle  holding  true  alike  in  fluids  and  solids — a  principle 
under  which  the  others  are  comprehended.  And  similarly, 
the  insight  obtained  into  the  phenomena  of  chemical  combi- 
nation, heat,  electricity,  &c,  implies  that  a  rationale  of 
them,  when  found,  will  be  the  exposition  of  some  highly 
general  fact  respecting  the  constitution  of  matter,  of  which 
chemical,  electrical,  and  thermal  facts,  are  merely  different 
manifestations. 

Is  this  process  limited  or  unlimited?  Can  we  go  on  for 
ever  explaining  classes  of  facts  by  including  them  in  larger 
classes ;  or  must  we  eventually  come  to  a  largest  class  ?  The 
supposition  that  the  process  is  unlimited,  were  any  one  ab- 
surd enough  to  espouse  it,  would  still  imply  that  an  ultimate 
explanation  could  not  be  reached ;  since  infinite  time  would 
be  required  to  reach  it.  While  the  unavoidable  conclusion 
that  it  is  limited  (proved  not  only  by  the  finite  sphere  of 
observation  open  to  us,  but  also  by  the  diminution  in  the 
number  of  generalizations  that  necessarily  accompanies  in- 
crease of  their  breadth)  equally  implies  that  the  ultimate 
fact  cannot  be  understood.  For  if  the  successively  deeper 
interpretations  of  nature  which  constitute  advancing  knowl- 
edge, are  merely  successive  inclusions  of  special  truths  in 
general  truths,  and  of  general  truths  in  truths  still  more  gen- 
eral; it  obviously  follows  that  the  most  general  truth,  not 
admitting  of  inclusion  in  any  other,  does  not  admit  of  inter- 
pretation. Manifestly,  as  the  most  general  cognition  at 
which  we  arrive  cannot  be  reduced  to  a  more  general  one,  it 
cannot  be  understood.  Of  necessity,  therefore,  explanation 
must  eventually  bring  us  down  to  the  inexplicable.  The 
deepest  truth  which  we  can  get  at,  must  be  unaccountable. 
Comprehension  must  become  something  other  than  compre- 
hension, before  the  ultimate  fact  can  be  comprehended. 

§  24.  The  inference  which  we  thus  find  forced  upon  us 
when  we  analyze  the  product  of  thought,  as  exhibited  ob- 
jectively in  scientific  generalizations,  is  equally  forced  upon 


76  THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE. 

us  by  an  analysis  of  the  process  of  thought,  as  exhibited  sub- 
jectively in  consciousness.  The  demonstration  of  the  neces- 
sarily relative  character  of  our  knowledge,  as  deduced  from 
the  nature  of  intelligence,  has  been  brought  to  its  most 
definite  shape  by  Sir  William  Hamilton.  I  cannot  here  do 
better  than  extract  from  his  essay  on  the  "  Philosophy  of 
the  Unconditioned,"  the  passage  containing  the  substance  of 
his  doctrine. 

"  The  mind  can  conceive,"  he  argues,  "  and  consequent- 
ly can  know,  only  the  limited,  and  the  conditionally  limited. 
The  unconditionally  unlimited,  or  the  Infinite,  the  uncondi- 
tionally limited,  or  the  Absolute,  cannot  positively  be  con- 
strued to  the  mind ;  they  can  be  conceived,  only  by  a  think- 
ing away  from,  or  abstraction  of,  those  very  conditions 
under  which  thought  itself  is  realized;  consequently,  the 
notion  of  the  Unconditioned  is  only  negative, — negative  of 
the  conceivable  itself.  For  example,  on  the  one  hand  we 
can  positively  conceive,  neither  an  absolute  whole,  that  is,  a 
whole  so  great,  that  we  cannot  also  conceive  it  as  a  relative 
part  of  a  still  greater  whole ;  nor  an  absolute  part,  that  is,  a 
part  so  small,  that  we  cannot  also  conceive  it  as  a  relative 
whole,  divisible  into  smaller  parts.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
cannot  positively  represent,  or  realize,  or  construe  to  the 
mind  (as  here  understanding  and  imagination  coincide),  an 
infinite  whole,  for  this  could  only  be  done  by  the  infinite 
synthesis  in  thought  of  finite  wholes,  which  would  itself  re- 
quire an  infinite  time  for  its  accomplishment;  nor,  for  the 
same  reason,  can  we  follow  out  in  thought  an  infinite  divisi- 
bility of  parts.  The  result  is  the  same,  whether  we  apply 
the  process  to  limitation  in  space,  in  time,  or  in  degree. 
The  unconditional  negation,  and  the  unconditional  affirma- 
tion of  limitation;  in  other  words,  the  infinite  and  absolute, 
properly  so  called,  are  thus  equally  inconceivable  to  us. 

"  As  the  conditionally  limited  (which  we  may  briefly 
call  the  conditioned)  is  thus  the  only  possible  object  of 
knowledge  and  of  positive  thought — thought  necessarily 


THE   RELATIVITY   OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  77 

supposes  conditions.  To  think  is  to  condition  /  and  condi- 
tional limitation  is  the  fundamental  law  of  the  possibility  of 
thought.  For,  as  the  greyhound  cannot  outstrip  his  shadow, 
nor  (by  a  more  appropriate  simile)  the  eagle  outsoar  the  at- 
mosphere in  which  he  floats,  and  by  which  alone  he  may 
be  supported;  so  the  mind  cannot  transcend  that  sphere 
of  limitation,  within  and  through  which  exclusively  the 
possibility  of  thought  is  realized.  Thought  is  only  of 
the  conditioned;  because,  as  we  have  said,  to  think  is  sim- 
ply to  condition.  The  absolute  is  conceived  merely  by  a 
negation  of  conceivability;  and  all  that  we  know,  is  only 
known  as 

'  won  from  the  void  and  formless  infinite? 

How,  indeed,  it  could  ever  be  doubted  that  thought  is  only 
of  the  conditioned,  may  well  be  deemed  a  matter  of  the  pro- 
f  oundest  admiration.  Thought  cannot  transcend  conscious- 
ness; consciousness  is  only  possible  under  the  antithesis  of 
a  subject  and  object  of  thought,  known  only  in  correlation, 
and  mutually  limiting  each  other;  while,  independently  of 
this,  all  that  we  know  either  of  subject  or  object,  either 
of  mind  or  matter,  is  only  a  knowledge  in  each  of  the  par- 
ticular, of  the  plural,  of  the  different,  of  the  modified,  of  the 
phenomenal.  We  admit  that  the  consequence  of  this  doc- 
trine is, — that  philosophy,  if  viewed  as  more  than  a  science 
of  the  conditioned,  is  impossible.  Departing  from  the  par- 
ticular, we  admit,  that  we  can  never,  in  our  highest  general- 
izations, rise  above  the  finite;  that  our  knowledge,  whether 
of  mind  or  matter,  can  be  nothing  more  than  a  knowledge  of 
the  relative  manifestations  of  an  existence,  which  in  itself  it 
is  our  highest  wisdom  to  recognize  as  beyond  the  reach  of 
philosophy, — in  the  language  of  St  Austin, — '  cognoscendo 
ignorari,  et  ignorando  cognosci.' 

"  The  conditioned  is  the  mean  between  two  extremes, — 
two  inconditionates,  exclusive  of  each  other,  neither  of 
which  can  he  conceived  as  possible,  but  of  which,  on  the 
principles  of  contradiction  and  excluded  middle,  one  must 


78  THE   RELATIVITY   OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE. 

be  admitted  as  necessary.  On  this  opinion,  therefore,  reason 
is  shown  to  be  weak,  but  not  deceitful.  The  mind  is  not  rep- 
resented as  conceiving  two  propositions  subversive  of  each 
other,  as  equally  possible ;  but  only,  as  unable  to  understand 
as  possible,  either  of  two  extremes ;  one  of  which,  however, 
on  the  ground  of  their  mutual  repugnance,  it  is  compelled 
to  recognize  as  true.  We  are  thus  taught  the  salutary 
lesson,  that  the  capacity  of  thought  is  not  to  be  constituted 
into  the  measure  of  existence ;  and  are  warned  from  recog- 
nizing the  domain  of  our  knowledge  as  necessarily  co-exten- 
sive with  the  horizon  of  our  faith.  And  by  a  wonderful 
revelation,  we  are  thus,  in  the  very  consciousness  of  our  in- 
ability to  conceive  aught  above  the  relative  and  finite,  in- 
spired with  a  belief  in  the  existence  of  something  uncondi- 
tioned beyond  the  sphere  of  all  comprehensible  reality." 

Clear  and  conclusive  as  this  statement  of  the  case  ap- 
pears when  carefully  studied,  it  is  expressed  in  so  abstract  a 
manner  as  to  be  not  very  intelligible  to  the  general  reader. 
A  more  popular  presentation  of  it,  with  illustrative  applica- 
tions, as  given  by  Mr  Mansel  in  his  "  Limits  of  Religious 
Thought,"  will  make  it  more  fully  understood.  The  follow- 
ing extracts,  which  I  take  the  liberty  of  making  from  his 
pages,  will  suffice. 

"  The  very  conception  of  consciousness,  in  whatever 
mode  it  may  be  manifested,  necessarily  implies  distinction 
between  one  object  and  another.  To  be  conscious,  we  must 
be  conscious  of  something ;  and  that  something  can  only  be 
known,  as  that  which  it  is,  by  being  distinguished  from  that 
which  it  is  not.  But  distinction  is  necessarily  limitation; 
for,  if  one  object  is  to  be  distinguished  from  another,  it  must 
possess  some  form  of  existence  which  the  other  has  not,  or  it 
must  not  possess  some  form  which  the  other  has.  But  it  is 
obvious  the  Infinite  cannot  be  distinguished,  as  such,  from 
the  Finite,  by  the  absence  of  any  quality  which  the  Finite 
possesses;  for  such  absence  would  be  a  limitation.  Nor  yet 
can  it  be  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  an  attribute  which 


THE   RELATIVITY.  OF  ALL   KNOWLEDGE.  79 


• 


the  Finite  lias  not ;  for,  as  no  finite  part  can  be  a  constituent 
of  an  infinite  whole,  this  differential  characteristic  must  it- 
self be  infinite;  and  must  at  the  same  time  have  nothing  in 
common  with  the  finite.  We  are  thus  thrown  back  upon  our 
former  impossibility ;  for  this  second  infinite  will  be  distin- 
guished from  the  finite  by  the  absence  of  qualities  which  the 
latter  possesses.  A  consciousness  of  the  Infinite  as  such  thus 
necessarily  involves  a  self-contradiction;  for  it  implies  the 
recognition,  by  limitation  and  difference,  of  that  which  can 
only  be  given  as  unlimited  and  indifferent.   *  *  * 

"  This  contradiction,  which  is  utterly  inexplicable  on  the 
supposition  that  the  infinite  is  a  positive  object  of  human 
thought,  is  at  once  accounted  for,  when  it  is  regarded  as  the 
mere  negation  of  thought.  If  all  thought  is  limitation; — if 
whatever  we  conceive  is,  by  the  very  act  of  conception, 
regarded  as  finite, — the  infinite,  from  a  human  point  of 
view,  is  merely  a  name  for  the  absence  of  those  conditions 
under  which  thought  is  possible.  To  speak  of  a  Conception 
of  the  Infinite  is,  therefore,  at  once  to  affirm  those  conditions 
and  to  deny  them.  The  contradiction,  which  we  discover  in 
-such  a  conception,  is  only  that  which  we  have  ourselves 
placed  there,  by  tacitly  assuming  the  conceivability  of  the 
inconceivable.  The  condition  of  consciousness  is  distinc- 
tion; and  condition  of  distinction  is  limitation.  We  can 
have  no  consciousness  of  Being  in  general  which  is  not  some 
Being  in  particular:  a  thing,  in  consciousness,  is  one  thing 
out  of  many.  In'  assuming  the  possibility  of  an  infinite  ob- 
ject of  consciousness,  I  assume,  therefore,  that  it  is  at  the 
same  time  limited  and  unlimited; — actually  something, 
without  which  it  could  not  be  an  object  of  conscious- 
ness, and  actually  nothing,  without  which  it  could  not  be 
infinite.   *  *  * 

"  A  second  characteristic  of  Consciousness  is,  that  it  is 
only  possible  in  the  form  of  a  relation.  There  must  be  a 
Subject,  or  person  conscious,  and  an  Object,  or  thing  of 
which  he  is  conscious.    There  can  be  no  consciousness  with- 


80  THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE. 

out  the  union  of  these  two  factors ;  and,  in  that  union,  each 
exists  only  as  it  is  related  to  the  other.  The  subject  is  a  sub- 
ject, only  in  so  far  as  it  is  conscious  of  an  object:  the  object 
is  an  object,  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  apprehended  by  a  subject: 
and  the  destruction  of  either  is  the  destruction  of  conscious- 
ness itself.  It  is  thus  manifest  that  a  consciousness  of  the 
Absolute  is  equally  self -contradictory  with  that  of  the  Infi- 
nite. To  be  conscious  of  the  Absolute  as  such,  we  must 
know  that  an  object,  which  is  given  in  relation  to  our  con- 
sciousness, is  identical  with  one  which  exists  in  its  own  na- 
ture, out  of  all  relation  to  consciousness.  But  to  know  this 
identity,  we  must  be  able  to  compare  the  two  together ;  and 
such  a  comparison  is  itself  a  contradiction.  We  are  in  fact 
required  to  compare  that  of  which  we  are  conscious  with 
that  of  which  we  are  not  conscious;  the  comparison  itself 
being  an  act  of  consciousness,  and  only  possible  through  the 
consciousness  of  both  its  objects.  It  is  thus  manifest  that, 
even  if  we  could  be  conscious  of  the  absolute,  we  could  not 
possibly  know  that  it  is  the  absolute :  and,  as  we  can  be  con- 
scious of  an  object  as  such,  only  by  knowing  it  to  be  what  it 
is,  this  is  equivalent  to  an  admission  that  we  cannot  be  con* 
scious  of  the  absolute  at  all.  As  an  object  of  consciousness, 
every  thing  is  necessarily  relative;  and  what  a  thing  may 
be  out  of  consciousness,  no  mode  of  consciousness  can  tell  us. 
"  This  contradiction,  again,  admits  of  the  same  explana- 
tion as  the  former.  Our  whole  notion  of  existence  is  neces- 
sarily relative;  for  it  is  existence  as  conceived  by  us.  But 
Existence,  as  we  conceive  it,  is  but  a  name  for  the  several 
ways  in  which  objects  are  presented  to  our  consciousness, — 
a  general  term,  embracing  a  variety  of  relations.  The  Ab- 
solute, on  the  other  hand,  is  a  term  expressing  no  object  of 
thought,  but  only  a  denial  of  the  relation  by  which  thought 
is  constituted.  To  assume  absolute  existence  as  an  object  of 
thought,  is  thus  to  suppose  a  relation  existing  when  the  re- 
lated terms  exist  no  longer.  An  object  of  thought  exists,  as 
such,  in  and  through  its  relation  to  a  thinker;  while  the  Ab- 


THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  81 

solute,  as  such,  is  independent  of  all  relation.  The  Concep- 
tion of  the  Absolute  thus  implies  at  the  same  time  the  pres- 
ence and  absence  of  the  relation  by  which  thought  is  consti- 
tuted; and  our  various  endeavours  to  represent  it  are  only 
so  many  modified  forms  of  the  contradiction  involved  in  our 
original  assumption.  Here,  too,  the  contradiction  is  one 
which  we  ourselves  have  made.  It  does  not  imply  that  the 
Absolute  cannot  exist;  but  it  implies,  most  certainly,  that 
we  cannot  conceive  it  as  existing. " 

Here  let  me  point  out  how  the  same  general  inference 
may  be  evolved  from  another- fundamental  condition  of 
thought,  omitted  by  Sir  W.  Hamilton,  and  not  supplied  by 
Mr  Mansel; — a  condition  which,  under  its  obverse  aspect, 
we  have  already  contemplated  in  the  last  section.  Every 
complete  act  of  consciousness,  besides  distinction  and  rela- 
tion, also  implies  likeness.  Before  it  can  become  an  idea,  or 
constitute  a  piece  of  knowledge,  a  mental  state  must  not  only 
be  known  as  separate  in  kind  from  certain  foregoing  states 
to  which  it  is  known  as  related  by  succession;  but  it  must 
further  be  known  as  of  the  same  kind  with  certain  other 
foregoing  states.  That  organization  of  changes  which  con- 
stitutes thinking,  involves  continuous  integration  as  well  as 
continuous  differentiation.  Were  each  new  affection  of  the 
mind  perceived  simply  as  an  affection  in  some  way  con- 
trasted with  the  preceding  ones — were  there  but  a  chain  of 
impressions,  each  of  which  as  it  arose  was  merely  distin- 
guished from  its  predecessors;  consciousness  would  be  an 
utter  chaos.  To  produce  that  orderly  consciousness  which 
we  call  intelligence,  there  requires  the  assimilation  of  each 
impression  to  others,  that  occurred  earlier  in  the  series. 
Both  the  successive  mental  states,  and  the  successive  rela- 
tions which  they  bear  to  each  other,  must  be  classified ;  and 
classification  involves  not  only  a  parting  of  the  unlike,  but 
also  a  binding  together  of  the  like.  In  brief,  a  true  cogni- 
tion is  possible  only  through  an  accompanying  recogni- 
tion. Should  it  be  objected  that  if  so,  there  cannot 


82  THE   RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE. 

be  a  first  cognition,  and  hence  there  can  be  no  cognition; 
the  reply  is,  that  cognition  proper  arises  gradually — that 
during  the  first  stage  of  incipient  intelligence,  before  the 
feelings  produced  by  intercourse  with  the  outer  world  have 
been  put  into  order,  there  are  no  cognitions,  stricly  so  called ; 
and  that,  as  every  infant  shows  us,  these  slowly  emerge  out 
of  the  confusion  of  unfolding  consciousness  as  fast  as  the  ex- 
periences are  arranged  into  groups — as  fast  as  the  most  fre- 
quently repeated  sensations,  and  their  relations  to  each 
other,  become  familiar  enough  to  admit  of  their  recognition 
as  such  or  such,  whenever  they  recur.  Should  it  be  further 
objected  that  if  cognition  pre-supposes  recognition,  there 
can  be  no  cognition,  even  by  an  adult,  of  an  object 
never  before  seen ;  there  is  still  the  sufficient  answer  that  in 
so  far  as  it  is  not  assimilated  to  previously-seen  objects,  it  is 
not  known,  and  that  it  is  known  in  so  far  as  it  is  assimilated 
to  them.  Of  this  paradox  the  interpretation  is,  that  an  ob- 
ject is  classifiable  in  various  ways,  with  various  degrees  of 
completeness.  An  animal  hitherto  unknown  (mark  the 
word),  though  not  referable  to  any  established  species  or 
genus,  is  yet  recognized  as  belonging  to  one  of  the  larger  di- 
visions— mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  or  fishes ;  or  should  it  be 
so  anomalous  that  its  alliance  with  any  of  these  is  not  deter- 
minable, it  may  yet  be  classed  as  vertebrate  or  invertebrate ; 
or  if  it  be  one  of  those  organisms  of  which  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  animal  or  vegetal  characteristics  predominate, 
it  is  still  known  as  a  living  body;  even  should  it  be  ques- 
tioned whether  it  is  organic,  it  remains  beyond  question  that 
it  is  a  material  object,  and  it  is  cognized  by  being  recognized 
as  such.  Whence  it  is  manifest  that  a  thing  is  perfectly 
known  only  when  it  is  in  all  respects  like  certain  things  pre- 
viously observed;  that  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  re- 
spects in  which  it  is  unlike  them,  is  the  extent  to  which  it  is 
unknown;  and  that  hence  when  it  has  absolutely  no  attri- 
bute in  common  with  anything  else,  it  must  be  absolutely  be- 
yond the  bounds  of  knowledge. 


THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  83 

Observe  the  corollary  which  here  concerns  ns.  A  cogni- 
tion of  the  Real,  as  distinguished  from  the  Phenomenal, 
nmst,  if  it  exists,  conform  to  this  law  of  cognition  in  general. 
The  First  Canse,  The  Infinite,  the  Absolute,  to  be  known  at 
all,  must  be  classed.  To  be  positively  thought  of,  it  must  be 
thought  of  as  such  or  such — as  of  this  or  that  kind.  Can  it 
be  like  in  kind  to  anything  of  which  we  have  sensible 
experience?  Obviously  not.  Between  the  creating  and  the 
created,  there  must  be  a  distinction  transcending  any  of  the 
distinctions  existing  between  different  divisions  of  the  cre- 
ated. That  which  is  uncaused  cannot  be  assimilated  to  that 
which  is  caused:  the  two  being,  in  the  very  naming,  anti- 
thetically opposed.  The  Infinite  cannot  be  grouped  along 
with  something  that  is  finite ;  since,  in  being  so  grouped,  it 
must  be  regarded  as  non-infinite.  It  is  impossible  to  put  the 
Absolute  in  the  same  category  with  anything  relative,  so 
long  as  the  Absolute  is  defined  as  that  of  which  no  necessary 
relation  can  be  predicated.  Is  it  then  that  the  Actual, 
though  unthinkable  by  classification  with  the  Apparent,  is 
thinkable  by  classification  with  itself?  This  supposition  is 
equally  absurd  with  the  other.  It  implies  the  plurality  of 
the  First  Cause,  the  Infinite,  the  Absolute;  and  this  impli- 
cation is  self -contradictory.  There  cannot  be  more  than  one 
First  Cause;  seeing  that  the  existence  of  more  than  one 
would  involve  the  existence  of  something  necessitating 
more  than  one,  which  something  would  be  the  true  First 
Cause.  How  self-destructive  is  the  assumption  of  two  or 
more  Infinites,  is  manifest  on  remembering  that  such  In- 
finites, by  limiting  each  other,  would  become  finite.  And 
similarly,  an  Absolute  which  existed  not  alone  but  along 
with  other  Absolutes,  would  no  longer  be  an  absolute  but  a 
relative.  The  Unconditioned  therefore,  as  classable  neither 
with  any  form  of  the  conditioned  nor  with  any  other  Un- 
conditioned, cannot  be  classed  at  all.  And  to  admit  that  it 
cannot  be  known  as  of  such  or  such  kind,  is  to  admit  that  it 
is  unknowable. 


84  THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE. 

Thus,  from  the  very  nature  of  thought,  the  relativity  of 
our  knowledge  is  inferable  in  three  several  ways.  As  we 
find  by  analyzing  it,  and  as  we  see  it  objectively  displayed 
in  every  proposition,  a  thought  involves  relation,  difference, 
likeness.  Whatever  does  not  present  each  of  these  does  not 
admit  of  cognition.  And  hence  we  may  say  that  the  Uncon- 
ditioned, as  presenting  none  of  them,  is  trebly  unthinkable. 

§  25.  From  yet  another  point  of  view  we  may  discern 
the  same  great  truth.  If,  instead  of  examining  our  intellec- 
tual powers  directly  as  exhibited  in  the  act  of  thought,  or  in- 
directly as  exhibited  in  thought  when  expressed  by  words, 
we  look  at  the  connexion  between  the  mind  and  the  world,  a 
like  conclusion  is  forced  upon  us.  In  the  very  definition  of 
Life,  when  reduced  to  its  most  abstract  shape,  this  ultimate 
implication  becomes  visible. 

All  vital  actions,  considered  not  separately  but  in  their 
ensemble,  have  for  their  final  purpose  the  balancing  of  cer- 
tain outer  processes  by  certain  inner  processes.  There  are 
unceasing  external  forces  tending  to  bring  the  matter  of 
which  organic  bodies  consist,  into  that  state  of  stable  equi- 
librium displayed  by  inorganic  bodies;  there  are  internal 
forces  by  which  this  tendency  is  constantly  antagonized; 
and  the  perpetual  changes  which  constitute  Life,  may  be  re- 
garded as  incidental  to  the  maintenance  of  the  antagonism. 
To  preserve  the  erect  posture,  for  instance,  we  see  that  cer- 
tain weights  have  to  be  neutralized  by  certain  strains :  each 
limb  or  other  organ,  gravitating  to  the  Earth  and  pulling 
down  the  parts  to  which  it  is  attached,  has  to  be  preserved  in 
position  by  the  tension  of  sundry  muscles;  or  in  other 
words,  the  group  of  forces  which  would  if  allowed  bring 
the  body  to  the  ground,  has  to  be  counterbalanced  by  an- 
other group  of  forces.  Again,  to  keep  up  the  temperature 
at  a  particular  point,  the  external  process  of  radiation  and 
absorption  of  heat  by  the  surrounding  medium,  must  be  met 
by  a  corresponding  internal  process  of  chemical  combina- 


THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  85 

tion,  whereby  more  heat  may  be  evolved;  to  which  add, 
that  if  from  atmospheric  changes  the  loss  becomes  greater 
or  less,  the  production  must  become  greater  or  less.  And 
similarly  throughout  the  organic  actions  in  general. 

When  we  contemplate  the  lower  kinds  of  life,  we  see 
that  the  correspondences  thus  maintained  are  direct  and  sim- 
ple; as  in  a  plant,  the  vitality  of  which  mainly  consists  in 
osmotic  and  chemical  actions  responding  to  the  co-existence 
of  light,  heat,  water,  and  carbonic  acid  around  it.  But  in 
animals,  and  especially  in  the  higher  orders  of  them,  the  cor- 
respondences become  extremely  complex.  Materials  for 
growth  and  repair  not  being,  like  those  which  plants  re- 
quire, everywhere  present,  but  being  widely  dispersed  and 
under  special  forms,  have  to  be  found,  to  be  secured,  and  to 
be  reduced  to  a  fit  state  for  assimilation.  Hence  the  need 
for  locomotion;  hence  the  need  for  the  senses;  hence  the 
need  for  prehensile  and  destructive  appliances;  hence  the 
need  for  an  elaborate  digestive  apparatus.  Observe,  how- 
ever, that  these  successive  complications  are  essentially 
nothing  but  aids  to  the  maintenance  of  the  organic  balance 
in  its  integrity,  in  opposition  to  those  physical,  chemical, 
and  other  agencies  which  tend  to  overturn  it.  And  observe, 
moreover,  that  while  these  successive  complications  sub- 
serve this  fundamental  adaptation  of  inner  to  outer  actions, 
they  are  themselves  nothing  else  but  further  adapta- 
tions of  inner  to  outer  actions.  For  what  are  those 
movements  by  which  a  predatory  creature  pursues  its 
prey,  or  by  which  its  prey  seeks  to  escape,  but  cer- 
tain changes  in  the  organism  fitted  to  meet  certain 
changes  in  its  environment?  What  is  that  compound 
operation  which  constitutes  the  perception  of  a  piece 
of  food,  but  a  particular  correlation  of  nervous  modifications, 
answering  to  a  particular  correlation  of  physical  properties  ? 
What  is  that  process  by  which  food  when  swallowed  is  re- 
duced to  a  fit  form  for  assimilation,  but  a  set  of  mechanical 
and  chemical  actions  responding  to  the  mechanical  and 


86  THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL   KNOWLEDGE. 

chemical  actions  which  distinguish  the  food?  "Whence  it 
becomes  manifest,  that  while  Life  in  its  simplest  form  is  the 
correspondence  of  certain  inner  physico-chemical  actions 
with  certain  outer  physico-chemical  actions,  each  advance  to 
a  higher  form  of  Life  consists  in  a  better  preservation  of 
this  primary  correspondence  by  the  establishment  of  other 
correspondences. 

Divesting  this  conception  of  all  superfluities  and  reduc- 
ing it  to  its  most  abstract  shape,  we  see  that  Life  is  definable 
as  the  continuous  adjustment  of  internal  relations  to  exter- 
nal relations.  And  when  we  so  define  it,  we  discover  that 
the  physical  and  the  psychical  life  are  equally  comprehended 
by  the  definition.  WTe  perceive  that  this  which  we  call  In- 
telligence, shows  itself  when  the  external  relations  to  which 
the  inte-rnal  ones  are  adjusted,  begin  to  be  numerous,  com- 
plex, and  remote  in  time  or  space;  that  every  advance  in 
Intelligence  essentially  consists  in  the  establishment  of 
more  varied,  more  complete,  and  more  involved  adjust- 
ments; and  that  even  the  highest  achievements  of  science 
are  resolvable  into  mental  relations  of  co-existence  and  se- 
quence, so  co-ordinated  as  exactly  to  tally  with  certain  re- 
lations of  co-existence  and  sequence  that  occur  externally. 
A  caterpillar,  wandering  at  random  and  at  length  finding  its 
way  on  to  a  plant  having  a  certain  odour,  begins  to  eat — has 
inside  of  it  an  organic  relation  between  a  particu- 
lar impression  and  a  particular  set  of  actions,  an- 
swering to  the  relation  outside  of  it,  between  scent 
and  nutriment.  The  sparrow,  guided  by  the  more 
complex  correlation  of  impressions  which  the  colour,  form, 
and  movements  of  the  caterpillar  gave  it;  and  guided  also 
by  other  correlations  which  measure  the  position  and  dis- 
tance of  the  caterpillar;  adjusts  certain  correlated  muscular 
movements  in  such  way  as  to  seize  the  caterpillar.  Through 
a  much  greater  distance  in  space  is  the  hawk,  hovering 
above,  affected  by  the  relations  of  shape  and  motion  which 
the  sparrow  presents;  and  the  much  more  complicated  and 


THE   RELATIVITY  OF   ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  87 

prolonged  series  of  related  nervous  and  muscular  changes, 
gone  through  in  correspondence  with  the  sparrow's  chang- 
ing relations  of  position,  finally  succeed  when  they  are  pre- 
cisely adjusted  to  these  changing  relations.  In  the  fowler, 
experience  has  established  a  relation  between  the  appear- 
ance and  flight  of  a  hawk  and  the  destruction  of  other  birds, 
including  game;  there  is  also  in  him  an  established  relation 
between  those  visual  impressions  answering  to  a  certain  dis- 
tance in  space,  and  the  range  of  his  gun ;  and  he  has  learned, 
too,  by  frequent  observation,  what  relations  of  position  the 
sights  must  bear  to  a  point  somewhat  in  advance  of  the  fly- 
ing bird,  before  he  can  fire  with  success.  Similarly  if  we 
go  back  to  the  manufacture  of  the  gun.  By  relations  of  co- 
existence between  colour,  density,  and  place  in  the  earth,  a 
particular  mineral  is  known  as  one  which  yields  iron;  and 
the  obtainment  of  iron  from  it,  results  when  certain  corre- 
lated acts  of  ours,  are  adjusted  to  certain  correlated  affinities 
displayed  by  ironstone,  coal,  and  lime,  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture. If  we  descend  yet  a  step  further,  and  ask  a  chemist  to 
explain  the  explosion  of  gunpowder,  or  apply  to  a  mathema- 
tician for  a  theory  of  projectiles,  wTe  still  find  that  special  or 
general  relations  of  co-existence  and  sequence  between  prop- 
erties, motions,  spaces  &c,  are  all  they  can  teach  us.  And 
lastly,  let  it  be  noted  that  what  we  call  truth,  guiding  us  to 
successful  action  and  the  consequent  maintenance  of  life,  is 
simply  the  accurate  correspondence  of  subjective  to  objec- 
tive relations ;  while  error,  leading  to  failure  and  therefore 
towards  death,  is  the  absence  of  such  accurate  correspond- 
ence. 

If,  then,  Life  in  all  its  manifestations,  inclusive  of  In- 
telligence in  its  highest  forms,  consists  in  the  continuous 
adjustment  of  internal  relations  to  external  relations,  the 
necessarily  relative  character  of  our  knowledge  becomes  ob- 
vious. The  simplest  cognition  being  the  establishment  of 
some  connexion  between  subjective  states,  answering  to 
some  connexion  between  objective  agencies;  and  each  sue- 


88  THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE. 

cessively  more  complex  cognition  being  the  establishment 
of  some  more  involved  connexion  of  such  states,  answering 
to  some  more  involved  connexion  of  such  agencies;  it  is 
clear  that  the  process,  no  matter  how  far  it  be  carried,  can 
never  bring  within  the  reach  of  Intelligence,  either  the 
states  themselves  or  the  agencies  themselves.  Ascertaining 
which  things  occur  along  with  which,  and  what  things  fol- 
low what,  supposing  it  to  be  pursued  exhaustively,  must 
still  leave  us  with  co-existences  and  sequences  only.  If 
every  act  of  knowing  is  the  formation  of  a  relation  in  con- 
sciousness parallel  to  a  relation  in  the  environment,  then  the 
relativity  of  knowledge  is  self-evident — becomes  indeed  a 
truism.  Thinking  being  relationing,  no  thought  can  ever 
express  more  than  relations. 

And  here  let  us  not  omit  to  mark  how  that  to  which  our 
intelligence  is  confined,  is  that  with  which  alone  our  intelli- 
gence is  concerned.  The  knowledge  within  our  reach,  is  the 
only  knowledge  that  can  be  of  service  to  us.  This  mainten- 
ance of  a  correspondence  between  internal  actions  and  exter- 
nal actions,  which  both  constitutes  our  life  at  each  moment 
and  is  the  means  whereby  life  is  continued  through  subse- 
quent moments,  merely  requires  that  the  agencies  acting 
upon  us  shall  be  known  in  their  co-existences  and  sequences, 
and  not  that  they  shall  be  known  in  themselves.  If  x  and  y 
are  two  uniformly  connected  properties  in  some  outer  ob- 
ject, while  a  and  b  are  the  effects  they  produce  in  our  con- 
sciousness ;  and  if  while  the  property  x  produces  in  us  the 
indifferent  mental  state  «,  the  property  y  produces  in  us  the 
painful  mental  state  b  (answering  to  a  physical  injury) ; 
then,  all  that  is  requisite  for  our  guidance,  is,  that  x  being 
the  uniform  accompaniment  of  y  externally,  a  shall  be  the 
uniform  accompaniment  of  b  internally ;  so  that  when,  by 
the  presence  of  x,  a  is  produced  in  consciousness,  5,  or 
rather  the  idea  of  b,  shall  follow  it,  and  excite  the  motions 
by  which  the  effect  of  y  may  be  escaped.  The  sole  need  is 
that  a  and  b  and  the  relation  between  them,  shall  always  an- 


THE  RELATIVITY   OP  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  89 

swer  to  x  and  y  and  the  relation  between  them.  It  matters 
nothing  to  us  if  a  and  b  are  like  x  and  y  or  not.  Could  they 
be  exactly  identical  with  them,  we  should  not  be  one  whit 
the  better  off;  and  their  total  dissimilarity  is  no  disadvan- 
tage to  us. 

Deep  down  then  in  the  very  nature  of  Life,  the  relativ- 
ity of  our  knowledge  is  discernible.  The  analysis  of  vital 
actions  in  general,  leads  not  only  to  the  conclusions  that 
things  in  themselves  cannot  be  known  to  us ;  but  also  to  the 
conclusion  that  knowledge  of  them,  were  it  possible,  would 
be  useless. 

§  26.  There  still  remains  the  final  question — What 
must  we  say  concerning  that  which  transcends  knowledge? 
Are  we  to  rest  wholly  in  the  consciousness  of  phenomena  ? — 
is  the  result  of  inquiry  to  exclude  utterly  from  our  minds 
everything  but  the  relative?  or  must  we  also  believe  in 
something  beyond  the  relative? 

The  answer  of  pure  logic  is  held  to  be,  that  by  the  limits 
of  our  intelligence  we  are  rigorously  confined  within  the  re- 
lative; and  that  anything  transcending  the  relative  can  be 
thought  of  only  as  a  pure  negation,  or  as  a  non-existence. 
"The  absolute  is  conceived  merely  by  a  negation  of  con- 
ceivability,"  writes  Sir  William  Hamilton.  "  The  Absolute 
and  the  Infinite"  says  Mr  Hansel,  "  are -thus,  like  the  In- 
conceivable  and  the  Imperceptible-,  names  indicating,  not  an 
object  of  thought  or  of  consciousness  at  all,  but  the  mere 
absence  of  the  conditions  under  which  consciousness  is  possi- 
ble." From  each  of  which  extracts  may  be  deduced  the  con- 
clusion, that  since  reason  cannot  warrant  us  in  affirming  the 
positive  existence  of  what  is  cognizable  only  as  a  negation, 
we  cannot  rationally  affirm  the  positive  existence  of  any- 
thing beyond  phenomena. 

Unavoidable  as  this  conclusion  seems,  it  involves,  I 
think,  a  grave  error.  If  the  premiss  be  granted,  the  infer- 
ence must  doubtless  be  admitted;  but  the  premiss,  in  the 
8 


90  THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE. 

form  presented  by  Sir  William  Hamilton  and  Mr  Mansel,  is 
not  strictly  trne.  Though,  in  the  foregoing  pages,  the  argu- 
ments used  by  these  writers  to  show  that  the  Absolute  is  un- 
knowable, have  been  approvingly  quoted ;  and  though  these 
arguments  have  been  enforced  by  others  equally  thorough- 
going; yet  there  remains  to  be  stated  a  qualification,  which 
saves  us  from  that  scepticism  otherwise  necessitated.  It  is 
not  to  be  denied  that  so  long  as  we  confine  ourselves  to  the 
purely  logical  aspect  of  the  question,  the  propositions  quoted 
above  must  be  accepted  in  their  entirety ;  but  when  we  con- 
template its  more  general,  or  psychological,  aspect,  we  find 
that  these  propositions  are  imperfect  statements  of  the 
truth :  omitting,  or  rather  excluding,  as  they  do,  an  all-im- 
portant fact.  To  speak  specifically: — Besides  that  definite 
consciousness  of  which  Logic  formulates  the  laws,  there  is 
also  an  indefinite  consciousness  which  cannot  be  formulated. 
Besides  complete  thoughts,  and  besides  the  thoughts  which 
though  incomplete  admit  of  completion,  there  are  thoughts 
which  it  is  impossible  to  complete;  and  yet  which  are  still 
real,  in  the  sense  that  they  are  normal  affections  of  the 
intellect. 

Observe  in  the  first  place,  that  every  one  of  the  argu- 
ments by  which  the  relativity  of  our  knowledge  is  demon- 
strated, distinctly  postulates  the  positive  existence  of  some- 
thing beyond  the  relative.  To  say  that  we  cannot  know  the 
Absolute,  is,  by  implication,  to  affirm  that  there  is  an  Abso- 
lute. In  the  very  denial  of  our  power  to  learn  what  the  Ab- 
solute is,  there  lies  hidden  the  assumption  that  it  is;  and  the 
making  of  this  assumption  proves  that  the  Absolute  has  been 
present  to  the  mind,  not  as  a  nothing,  but  as  a  something. 
Similarly  with  every  step  in  the  reasoning  by  which  this  doc- 
trine is  upheld.  The  Xoumenon,  everywhere  named  as  the 
antithesis  *of  the  Phenomenon,  is  throughout  necessarily 
thought  of  as  an  actuality.  It  is  rigorously  impossible  to 
conceive  that  our  knowledge  is  a  knowledge  of  Appearances 
only,  without  at  the  same  time  conceiving  a  Reality  of  which 


THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  91 

they  are  appearances;  for  appearance  without  reality  is  un- 
thinkable. Strike  out  from  the  argument  the  terms  Un- 
conditioned, Infinite,  Absolute,  with  their  equivalents,  and 
in  place  of  them  write,  "  negation  of  conceivability,"  or 
possible,"  and  you  find  that  the  argument  becomes  non- 
sense. Truly  to  realize  in  thought  any  one  of  the  proposi- 
tions of  which  the  argument  consists,  the  Unconditioned 
must  be  represented  as  positive  and  not  negative.  How  then 
can  it  be  a  legitimate  conclusion  from  the  argument,  that 
our  consciousness  of  it  is  negative  ?  An  argument,  the  very 
construction  of  which  assigns  to  a  certain  term  a  certain 
meaning,  but  which  ends  in  showing  that  this  term  has  no 
such  meaning,  is  simply  an  elaborate  suicide.  Clearly,  then, 
the  very  demonstration  that  a  definite  consciousness  of  the 
Absolute  is  impossible  to  us,  unavoidably  presupposes  an  in- 
definite consciousness  of  it. 

Perhaps  the  best  way  of  showing  that  by  the  necessary 
conditions  of  thought,  we  are  obliged  to  form  a  positive 
though  vague  consciousness  of  this  which  transcends  distinct 
consciousness,  is  to  analyze  our  conception  of  the  antithesis 
between  Relative  and  Absolute.  It  is  a  doctrine  called  in 
question  by  none,  that  such  antinomies  of  thought  as  Whole 
and  Part,  Equal  and  Unequal,  Singular  and  Plural,  are 
necessarily  conceived  as  correlatives:  the  conception  of  a 
part  is  impossible  without  the  conception  of  a  whole ;  there 
can  be  no  idea  of  equality  without  one  of  inequality.  And  it 
is  admitted  that  in  the  same  manner,  the  Relative  is  itself 
conceivable  as  such,  only  by  opposition  to  the  Irrelative  or 
Absolute.  Sir  William  Hamilton  however,  in  his 

trenchant  (and  in  most  parts  unanswerable)  criticism  on 
Cousin,  contends,  in  conformity  with  his  position  above 
stated,  that  one  of  these  correlatives  is  nothing  whatever  be- 
yond the  negation  of  the  other.  "  Correlatives  v  he  says 
"  certainly  suggest  each  other,  but  correlatives  may,  or  may 
not,  be  equally  real  and  positive.  In  thought  contradictories 
necessarily  imply  each  other,  for  the  knowledge  of  contra- 


92  THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE. 

dictories  is  one.  But  the  reality  of  one  contradictory,  so 
far  from  guaranteeing  the  reality  of  the  other,  is  nothing 
else  than  its  negation.  Thus  every  positive  notion  (the  con- 
cept of  a  thing  by  what  it  is)  suggests  a  negative  notion 
(the  concept  of  a  thing  by  what  it  is  not) ;  and  the  highest 
positive  notion,  the  notion  of  the  conceivable,  is  not  with- 
out its  corresponding  negative  in  the  notion  of  the  incon- 
ceivable. But  though  these  mutually  suggest  each  other, 
the  positive  alone  is  real;  the  negative  is  only  an  abstrac- 
tion of  the  other,  and  in  the  highest  generality,  even  an  ab- 
straction of  thought  itself.7'  Xow  the  assertion  that 
of  such  contradictories  "  the  negative  is  only  an  abstrac- 
tion of  the  other  " — "  is  nothing  else  than  its  negation," — 
is  not  true.  In  such  correlatives  as  Equal  and  Unequal,  it 
is  obvious  enough  that  the  negative  concept  contains  some- 
thing besides  the  negation  of  the  positive  one;  for  the 
things  of  which  equality  is  denied  are  not  abolished  from 
consciousness  by  the  denial.  And  the  fact  overlooked  by 
Sir  William  Hamilton,  is,  that  the  like  holds  even  with 
those  correlatives  of  which  the  negative  is  inconceivable,  in 
the  strict  sense  of  the  word.  Take  for  example  the  Limited 
and  the  Unlimited.  Our  notion  of  the  Limited  is  composed, 
firstly  of  a  consciousness  of  some  kind  of  being,  and  second- 
ly of  a  consciousness  of  the  limits  under  which  it  is  known. 
In  the  antithetical  notion  of  the  Unlimited,  the  conscious- 
ness of  limits  is  abolished ;  but  not  the  consciousness  of  some 
kind  of  being.  It  is  quite  true  that  in  the  absence  of  con- 
ceived limits,  this  consciousness  ceases  to  be  a  concept  prop- 
erly so  called ;  but  it  is  none  the  less  true  that  it  remains  as  a 
mode  of  consciousness.  If,  in  such  cases,  the  negative  contra- 
dictory were,  as  alleged,  "  nothing  else  "  than  the  negation 
of  the  other,  and  therefore  a  mere  nonentity,  then  it  would 
clearly  follow  that  negative  contradictories  could  be  used  in- 
terchangeably: the  L'nlimited  might  be  thought  of  as  anti- 
thetical to  the  Divisible ;  and  the  Indivisible  as  antithetical 
to  the  Limited.    While  the  fact  that  they  cannot  be  so  used. 


THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  93 

proves  that  in  consciousness  the  Unlimited  and  the  Indi- 
visible are  qualitatively  distinct,  and  therefore  positive  or 
real;  since  distinction  cannot  exist  between  nothings.  The 
error,  (very  naturally  fallen  into  by  philosophers  intent  on 
demonstrating  the  limits  and  conditions  of  consciousness,) 
consists  in  assuming  that  consciousness  contains  nothing  hut 
limits  and  conditions;  to  the  entire  neglect  of  that  which  is 
limited  and  conditioned.  It  is  forgotten  that  there  is  some- 
thing which  alike  forms  the  raw  material  of  definite 
thought  and  remains  after  the  definiteness  which  thinking 
gave  to  it  has  been  destroyed.  Now  all  this  applies  by 

change  of  terms  to  the  last  and  highest  of  these  antinomies 
— that  between  the  Relative  and  the  Eon-relative.  We 
are  conscious  of  the  Relative  as  existence  under  conditions 
and  limits;  it  is  impossible  that  these  conditions  and  limits 
can  be  thought  of  apart  from  something  to  which  they  give 
the  form;  the  abstraction  of  these  conditions  and  limits,  is, 
by  the  hypothesis,  the  abstraction  of  them  only ;  conse- 
quently there  must  be  a  residuary  consciousness  of  some- 
thing which  filled  up  their  outlines;  and  this  indefinite 
something  constitutes  our  consciousness  of  the  Non-relative 
or  Absolute.  Impossible  though  it  is  to  give  to  this  con- 
sciousness any  qualitative  or  quantitative  expresion  what- 
ever, it  is  not  the  less  certain  that  it  remains  with  us  as  a  posi- 
tive and  indestructible  element  of  thought. 

Still  more  manifest  will  this  truth  become  when  it  is  ob- 
served that  our  conception  of  the  Relative  itself  disappears, 
if  our  conception  of  the  Absolute  is  a  pure  negation.  It  is 
admitted,  or  rather  it  is  contended,  by  the  writers  I  have 
quoted  above,  that  contradictories  can  be  known  only  in  re- 
lation to  each  other — that  Equality,  for  instance-,  is  un- 
thinkable apart  from  its  correlative  Inequality;  and  that 
thus  the  Relative  can  itself  be  conceived  only  by  opposition 
to  the  Non-relative.  It  is  also  admitted,  or  rather  contended, 
that  the  consciousness  of  a  relation  implies  a  consciousness 
of  both  the  related  members.     If  we  are  required  to  con- 


94  THE   RELATIVITY   OF  ALL   KNOWLEDGE. 

ceive  the  relation  between  the  Relative  and  Non-relative 

without  being  conscious  of  both,  "  we  are  in  fact  "  (to  quote 
the  words  of  Mr  Mansel  differently  applied)  "  required  to 
compare  that  of  which  we  are  conscious  with  that  of  which 
we  are  not  conscious;  the  comparison  itself  being  an  act  of 
consciousness,  and  only  possible  through  the  consciousness 
of  both  its  objects."  What  then  becomes  of  the  assertion 
that  "  the  Absolute  is  conceived  merely  by  a  negation  of 
conceivabilitv,"  or  as  "  the  mere  absence  of  the  conditions 
under  which  consciousness  is  possible  ( "  If  the  Xon-rela- 
tive  or  Absolute,  is  present  in  thought  only  as  a  mere  nega- 
tion, then  the  relation  between  it  and  the  Relative  becomes 
unthinkable,  because  one  of  the  terms  of  the  relation  is  ab- 
sent from  consciousness.  And  if  this  relation  is  unthink- 
able, then  is  the  Relative  itself  unthinkable,  for  want  of  its 
antithesis;  whence  results  the  disappearance  of  all  thought 
whatever. 

Let  me  here  point  out  that  both  Sir  "Win  Hamilton  and 
Mr  Mansel,  do,  in  other  places,  distinctly  imply  that  our 
consciousness  of  the  Absolute,  indefinite  though  it  is,  is 
positive  and  not  negative.  The  very  passage  already  quoted 
from  Sir  Wm  Hamilton,  in  which  he  asserts  that  "  the  ab- 
solute is  conceived  merely  by  a  negation  of  conceivabilitv," 
itself  ends  with  the  remark  that,  "  by  a  wonderful  revela- 
tion we  are  thus,  in  the  very  consciousness  of  our  inability  to 
conceive  aught  above  the  relative  and  finite,  inspired  with  a 
belief  in  the  existence  of  something  unconditioned  beyond 
the  sphere  of  all  comprehensible  reality.1'  The  last  of 
these  assertions  practically  admits  that  which  the  other 
denies.  By  the  laws  of  thought  as  Sir  Wm  Hamilton  has 
interpreted  them,  he  finds  himself  forced  to  the  conclusion 
that  our  consciousness  of  the  Absolute  is  a  pure  negation. 
He  nevertheless  finds  that  there  does  exist  in  consciousness 
an  irresistible  conviction  of  the  real  "  existence  of  some- 
thing unconditioned."  And  he  gets  over  the  inconsistency 
by  speaking  of  this  conviction  as  "  a  wonderful  revelation  " 


THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  95 

— "  a  belief  "  with  which  we  are  "  inspired:  "  thus  appar- 
ently hinting  that  it  is  supernaturally  at  variance  with  the 
laws  of  thought.  Mr  Mansel  is  betrayed  into  a  like  incon- 
sistency. When  he  says  that  "  we  are  compelled,  by  the 
constitution  of  our  minds,  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  an 
Absolute  and  Infinite  Being, — a  belief  which  appears  forced 
upon  us,  as  the  complement  of  our  consciousness  of  the  rela- 
tive and  the  finite;  "  he  clearly  says  by  implication  that 
this  consciousness  is  positive,  and  not  negative.  He  tacitly 
admits  that  we  are  obliged  to  regard  the  Absolute  as  some- 
thing more  than  a  negation — that  our  consciousness  of  it  is 
not  "  the  mere  absence  of  the  conditions  under  which  con- 
sciousness is  possible.'7 

The  supreme  importance  of  this  question  must  be  my 
apology  for  taxing  the  reader's  attention  a  little  further,  in 
the  hope  of  clearing  up  the  remaining  difficulties.  The  ne- 
cessarily positive  character  of  our  consciousness  of  the 
Unconditioned,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  follows  from  an  ulti- 
mate law  of  thought,  will  be  better  understood  on  contem- 
plating the  process  of  thought. 

One  of  the  arguments  used  to  prove  the  relativity  of 
our  knowledge,  is,  that  we  cannot  conceive  Space  or  Time  as 
either  limited  or  unlimited.  It  is  pointed  out  that  when  we 
imagine  a  limit,  there  simultaneously  arises  the  conscious- 
ness of  a  space  or  time  existing  beyond  the  limit.  This  re- 
moter space  or  time,  though  not  contemplated  as  definite,  is 
yet  contemplated  as  real.  Though  we  do  not  form  of  it  a 
conception  proper,  since  we  do  not  bring  it  within  bounds, 
there  is  yet  in  our  minds  the  unshaped  material  of  a  concep- 
tion. Similarly  with  our  consciousness  of  Cause.  We  are 
no  more  able  to  form  a  circumscribed  idea  of  Cause,  than  of 
Space  or  Time;  and  we  are  consequently  obliged  to  think 
of  the  Cause  which  transcends  the  limits  of  our  thought  as 
positive  though  indefinite.  Just  in  the  same  manner  that 
on  conceiving  any  bounded  space,  there  arises  a  nascent 
consciousness  of  space  outside  the  bounds;  so,  when  we 


96  THE  RELATIVITY   OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE. 

think  of  any  definite  cause,  there  arises  a  nascent  conscious- 
ness of  a  cause  behind  it:  and  in  the  one  case  as  in  the 
other,  this  nascent  consciousness  is  in  substance  like  that 
which  suggests  it,  though  without  form.  The  momentum 
of  thought  inevitably  carries  us  beyond  conditioned  exist- 
ence to  unconditioned  existence ;  and  this  ever  persists  in  us 
as  the  body  of  a  thought  to  which  we  can  give  no  shape. 

Hence  our  firm  belief  in  objective  reality — a  belief 
which  metaphysical  criticisms  cannot  for  a  moment  shake. 
When  we  are  taught  that  a  piece  of  matter,  regarded  by  us 
as  existing  externally,  cannot  be  really  known,  but  that  we 
can  know  only  certain  impressions  produced  on  us,  we  are 
yet,  by  the  relativity  of  our  thought,  compelled  to  think  of 
these  in  relation  to  a  positive  cause — the  notion  of  a  real  ex- 
istence which  generated  these  impressions  becomes  nascent. 
If  it  be  proved  to  us  that  every  notion  of  a  real  existence 
which  we  can  frame,  is  utterly  inconsistent  with  itself — that 
matter,  however  conceived  by  us,  cannot  be  matter  as  it 
actually  is,  our  conception,  though  transfigured,  is  not  de- 
stroyed: there  remains  the  sense  of  reality,  dissociated  as 
far  as  possible  from  those  special  forms  under  which  it  was 
before  represented  in  thought.  Though  Philosophy  con- 
demns successively  each  attempted  conception  of  the  Abso- 
lute— though  it  proves  to  us  that  the  Absolute  is  not  this, 
nor  that,  nor  that — though  in  obedience  to  it  we  negative, 
one  after  another,  each  idea  as  it  arises;  yet,  as  we  cannot 
expel  the  entire  contents  of  consciousness,  there  ever  re- 
mains behind  an  element  which  passes  into  new  shapes.  The 
continual  negation  of  each  particular  form  and  limit,  sim- 
ply results  in  the  more  or  less  complete  abstraction  of  all 
forms  and  limits;  and  so  ends  in  an  indefinite  consciousness 
of  the  unformed  and  unlimited. 

And  here  we  come  face  to  face  with  the  ultimate  diffi- 
culty— How  can  there  possibly  be  constituted  a  conscious- 
ness of  the  unformed  and  unlimited,  when,  by  its  very  na- 
ture, consciousness  is  possible  only  under  forms  and  limits  ? 


THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  97 

If  every  consciousness  of  existence  is  a  consciousness  of  ex- 
istence as  conditioned* then  how,  after  the  negation  of  con- 
ditions, can  there  be  any  residuum?.  Though  not  directly 
withdrawn  by  the  withdrawal  of  its  conditions,  must  not  the 
raw  material  of  consciousness  be  withdrawn  by  implication  ?. 
Must  it  not  vanish  when  the  conditions  of  its  existence  van- 
ish? That  there  must  be  a  solution  of  this  difficulty 
is  manifest;  since  even  those  who  would  put  it,  do,  as  al- 
ready shown,  admit  that  we  have  some  such  consciousness; 
and  the  solution  appears  to  be  that  above  shadowed  forth. 
Such  consciousness  is  not,  and  cannot  be,  constituted  by  any 
single  mental  act;  but  is  the  product  of  many  mental  acts. 
In  each  concept  there  is  an  element  which  persists.  It  is 
alike  impossible  for  this  element  to  be  absent  from  con- 
sciousness, and  for  it  to  be  present  in  consciousness  alone: 
either  alternative  involves  unconsciousness — the  one  from 
the  want  of  the  substance;  the  other  from  the  want  of  the 
form.  But  the  persistence  of  this  element  under  successive 
conditions,  necessitates  a  sense  of  it  as  distinguished  from 
the  conditions,  and  independent  of  them.  The  sense  of  a 
something  that  is  conditioned  in  every  thought,  cannot  be 
got  rid  of,  because  the  something  cannot  be  got  rid  of. 
How  then  must  the  sense  of  this  something  be  constituted? 
Evidently  by  combining  successive  concepts  deprived  of 
their  limits  and  conditions.  We  form  this  indefinite 
thought,  as  we  form  many  of  our  definite  thoughts,  by 
the  coalescence  of  a  series  of  thoughts.  Let  me  illustrate 
this.  A  large  complex  object,  having  attributes  too 
numerous  to  be  represented  at  once,  is  yet  tolerably  well 
conceived  by  the  union  of  several  representations,  each 
standing  for  part  of  its  attributes.  On  thinking  of  a 
piano,  there  first  rises  in  imagination  its  visual  appearance, 
to  which  are  instantly  added  (though  by  separate  mental 
acts)  the  ideas  of  its  remote  side  and  of  its  solid  substance. 
A  complete  conception,  however,  involves  the  strings,  the 
hammers,  the  dampers,  the  pedals;  and  while  successively 


98  THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE. 

adding  these  to  the  conception,  the  attributes  first  thought 
of  lapse  more  or  less  completely  'out  of  consciousness. 
Nevertheless,  the  whole  group  constitutes  a  representation 
of  the  piano.  Xow  as  in  this  case  we  form  a  definite  concept 
of  a  special  existence,  by  imposing  limits  and  conditions  in 
successive  acts;  so,  in  the  converse  case,  by  taking  away  the 
limits  and  conditions  in  successive  acts,  we  form  an  indefi- 
nite notion  of  general  existence.  By  fusing  a  series  of  states 
of  consciousness,  in  each  of  which,  as  it  arises,  the  limita- 
tions and  conditions  are  abolished,  there  is  produced  a  con- 
sciousness of  something  unconditioned.  To  speak  more 
rigorously: — this  consciousness  is  not  the  abstract  of  any 
one  group  of  thoughts,  ideas,  or  conceptions;  but  it  is  the 
abstract  of  all  thoughts,  ideas,  or  conceptions.  That  which 
is  common  to  them  all,  and  cannot  be  got  rid  of,  is  what  we 
predicate  by  the  word  existence.  Dissociated  as  this  be- 
comes from  each  of  its  modes  by  the  perpetual  change  of 
those  modes,  it  remains  as  an  indefinite  consciousness  of 
something  constant  under  all  modes — of  being  apart  from 
its  appearances.  The  distinction  we  feel  between  special 
and  general  existence,  is  the  distinction  between  that  which 
is  changeable  in  us,  and  that  which  is  unchangeable.  The 
contrast  between  the  Absolute  and  the  Eelative  in  our 
minds,  is  really  the  contrast  between  that  mental  element 
which  exists  absolutely,  and  those  which  exist  relatively. 

By  its  very  nature,  therefore,  this  ultimate  mental  ele- 
ment is  at  once  necessarily  indefinite  and  necessarily  inde- 
structible. Our  consciousness  of  the  unconditioned  being 
literally  the  unconditioned  consciousness,  or  raw  material 
of  thought  to  which  in  thinking  we  give  definite  forms,  it 
follows  that  an  ever-present  sense  of  real  existence  is  the 
very  basis  of  our  intelligence.  As  we  can  in  successive  men- 
tal acts  get  rid-of  all  particular  conditions  and  replace  them 
by  others,  but  cannot  get  rid  of  that  undifferentiated  sub- 
stance of  consciousness  which  is  conditioned  anew  in  every 
thought;  there  ever  remains  with  us  a  sense  of  that  which 


THE  RELATIVITY  OF  ALL  KNOWLEDGE.  99 

exists  persistently  and  independently  of  conditions.  At  the 
same  time  that  by  the  laws  of  thought  we  are  rigorously 
prevented  from  forming  a  conception  of  absolute  existence ; 
we  are  by  the  laws  of  thought  equally  prevented  from  rid- 
ding ourselves  of  the  consciousness  of  absolute  existence: 
this  consciousness  being,  as  we  here  see,  the  obverse  of  our 
self-consciousness.  And  since  the  only  possible  measure  of 
relative  validity  among  our  beliefs,  is  the  degree  of  their 
persistence  in  opposition  to  the  efforts  made  to  change  them, 
it  follows  that  this  which  persists  at  all  times,  under  all  cir- 
cumstances, and  cannot  cease  until  consciousness  ceases,  has 
the  highest  validity  of  any. 

To  sum  up  this  somewhat  too  elaborate  argument : — We 
have  seen  how  in  the  very  assertion  that  all  our  knowledge, 
properly  so  called,  is  Relative,,  there  is  involved  the  asser- 
tion that  there  exists  a  Non-relative.  We  have  seen  how,  in 
each  step  of  the  argument  by  which  this  doctrine  is  estab- 
lished, the  same  assumption  is  made.  We  have  seen  how, 
from  the  very  necessity  of  thinking  in  relations,  it  follows 
that  the  Relative  is  itself  inconceivable,  except  as  related  to 
a  real  Non-relative.  We  have  seen  that  unless  a  real  Non- 
relative  or  Absolute  be  postulated,  the  Relative  itself  be- 
comes absolute ;  and  so  brings  the  argument  to  a  contradic- 
tion. And  on  contemplating  the  process  of  thought,  we 
have  equally  seen  how  impossible  it  is  to  get  rid  of  the  con- 
sciousness of  an  actuality  lying  behind  appearances;  and 
how,  from  this  impossibility,  results  our  indestructible  be- 
lief in  that  actuality. 


CHAPTEE  V. 

.  THE    RECONCILIATION. 

§  27.  Thus  do  all  lines  of  argument  converge  to  the 
same  conclusion.  The  inference  reached  d  priori,  in  the 
last  chapter,  confirms  the  inferences  which,  in  the  two  pre- 
ceding chapters,  were  reached  d  posteriori.  Those  imbecili- 
ties of  the  understanding  that  disclose  themselves  when  we 
try  to  answer  the  highest  questions  of  objective  science, 
subjective  science  proves  to  be  necessitated  by  the  laws  of 
that  understanding.  We  not  only  learn  by  the  frustration 
of  all  our  efforts,  that  the  reality  underlying  appearances  is 
totally  and  for  ever  inconceivable  by  us;  but  we  also  learn 
why,  from  the  very  nature  of  our  intelligence,  it  must  be  so. 
Finally  we  discover  that  this  conclusion,  which,  in  its  un- 
qualified form,  seems  opposed  to  the  instinctive  convictions 
of  mankind,  falls  into  harmony  with  them  when  the  miss- 
ing qualification  is  supplied.  Though  the  Absolute  cannot 
in  any  manner  or  degree  be  known,  in  the  strict  sense  of 
knowing,  yet  we  find  that  its  positive  existence  is  a  neces- 
sary datum  of  consciousness;  that  so  long  as  consciousness 
continues,  we  cannot  for  an  instant  rid  it  of  this  datum ;  and 
that  thus  the  belief  which  this  datum  constitutes,  has  a 
higher  warrant  than  any  other  whatever. 

Here  then  is  that  basis  of  agreement  we  set  out  to  seek. 
This  conclusion  which  objective  science  illustrates,  and  sub- 
jective science  shows  to  be  unavoidable, — this  conclusion 
which,  while  it  in  the  main  expresses  the  doctrine  of  the 

100 


THE  RECONCILIATION.  101 

English  school  of  philosophy,  recognizes  also  a  soul  of  truth 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  antagonistic  German  school — this  con- 
clusion which  brings  the  results  of  speculation  into  harmony 
with  those  of  common  sense;  is  also  the  conclusion  which 
reconciles  Religion  with  Science.  Common  Sense  asserts 
the  existence  of  a  reality;  Objective  Science  proves  that 
this  reality  cannot  be  what  we  think  it;  Subjective  Science 
shows  why  we  cannot  think  of  it  as  it  is,  and  yet  are  com- 
pelled to  think  of  it  as  existing;  and  in  this  assertion  of  a 
Reality  utterly  inscrutable  in  nature,  Religion  finds  an  asser- 
tion essentially  coinciding  with  her  own.  We  are  obliged  to 
regard  every  phenomenon  as  a  manifestation  of  some  Power 
by  which  we  are  acted  upon;  though  Omnipresence  is  un- 
thinkable, yet,  as  experience  discloses  no  bounds  to  the  diffu- 
sion of  phenomena,  we  are  unable  to  think  of  limits  to  the 
presence  of  this  Power;  while  the  criticisms  of  Science 
teach  us  that  this  Power  is  Incomprehensible.  And  this 
consciousness  of  an  Incomprehensible  Power,  called  Omni- 
present from  inability  to  assign  its  limits,  is  just  that  con- 
sciousness on  which  Religion  dwells. 

To  understand  fully  how  real  is  the  reconciliation  thus 
reached,  it  will  be  needful  to  look  at  the  respective  attitudes 
that  Religion  and  Science  have  all  along  maintained  towards 
this  conclusion.  We  must  observe  how,  all  along,  the  im- 
perfections of  each  have  been  undergoing  correction  by  the 
other;  and  how  the  final  out-come  of  their  mutual  criti- 
cisms, can  be  nothing  else  than  an  entire  agreement  on  this 
deepest  and  widest  of  all  truths. 

§  28.  In  Religion  let  us  recognize  the  high  merit  that 
from  the  beginning  it  has  dimly  discerned  the  ultimate  ver- 
ity, and  has  never  ceased  to  insist  upon  it.  In  its  earliest 
and  crudest  forms  it  manifested,  however  vaguely  and  in- 
consistently, an  intuition  forming  the  germ  of  this  highest 
belief  in  which  all  philosophies  finally  unite.  The  con- 
sciousness of  a  mystery  is  traceable  in  the  rudest  fetishism. 


102  THE  RECONCILIATION. 

Each  higher  religious  creed,  rejecting  those  definite  and  sim- 
ple interpretations  of  ^Nature  previously  given,  has  become 
more  religious  by  doing  this.  As  the  quite  concrete  and  con- 
ceivable agencies  alleged  as  the  causes  of  things,  have  been 
replaced  by  agencies  less  concrete  and  conceivable,  the  ele- 
ment of  mystery  has  of  necessity  become  more  predominant. 
Through  all  its  successive  phases  the  disappearance  of  those 
positive  dogmas  by  which  the  mystery  was  made  unmysteri- 
ous,  has  formed  the  essential  change  delineated  in  religious 
history.  And  so  Religion  has  ever  been  approximating 
towards  that  complete  recognition  of  this  mystery  which  is 
its  goal. 

For  its  essentially  valid  belief,  Religion  has  constantly 
done  battle.  Gross  as  were  the  disguises  under  which  it  first 
espoused  this  belief,  and  cherishing  this  belief,  though  it 
still  is,  under  disfiguring  vestments,  it  has  never  ceased  to 
maintain  and  defend  it.  It  has  everywhere  established  and 
propagated  one  or  other  modification  of  the  doctrine  that  all 
things  are  manifestations  of  a  Power  that  transcends  our 
knowledge.  Though  from  age  to  age,  Science  has  continu- 
ally defeated  it  wherever  they  have  come  in  collision,  and 
has  obliged  it  to  relinquish  one  or  more  of  its  positions;  it 
has  still  held  the  remaining  ones  with  undimnished  tenacity. 
aSo  exposure  of  the  logical  inconsistency  of  its  conclusions 
— no  proof  that  each  of  its  particular  dogmas  was  absurd, 
has  been  able  to  weaken  its  allegiance  to  that  ultimate  verity 
for  which  it  stands.  After  criticism  has  abolished  all  its 
arguments  and  reduced  it  to  silence,  there  has  still  remained 
with  it  the  indestructible  consciousness  of  a  truth  which, 
however  faulty  the  mode  in  which  it  had  been  expressed, 
was  yet  a  truth  beyond  cavil.  To  this  conviction  its  adher- 
ence has  been  substantially  sincere.  And  for  the  guardian- 
ship and  diffusion  of  it,  Humanity  has  ever  been,  and  must 
ever  be,  its  debtor. 

But  while  from  the  beginning,  Religion  has  had  the  all- 
essential  office  of  preventing  men  from  being  wholly  ab- 


THE  RECONCILIATION.  103 

sorbed  in  the  relative  or  immediate,  and  of  awakening  them 
to  a  consciousness  of  something  beyond  it,  this  office  has 
been  but  very  imperfectly  discharged.  Religion  has  ever 
been  more  or  less  irreligious;  and  it  continues  to  be  par- 
tially irreligious  even  now.  In  the  first  place,  as  im- 
plied above,  it  has  all  along  professed  to  have  some  knowl- 
edge of  that  which  transcends  knowledge;  and  has  so  con- 
tradicted its  own  teachings.  While  with  one  breath  it  has 
asserted  that  the  Cause  of  all  things  passes  understanding,  it 
has,  with  the  next  breath,  asserted  that  the  Cause  of  all 
things  possesses  such  or  such  attributes — can  be  in  so  far 
understood.  In  the  second  place,  while  in  great  part 
sincere  in  its  fealty  to  the  great  truth  it  has  had  to  uphold, 
it  has  often  been  insincere,  and  consequently  irreligious,  in 
maintaining  the  untenable  doctrines  by  which  it  has  ob- 
scured this  great  truth.  Each  assertion  respecting  the  na- 
ture, acts,  or  motives  of  that  Power  which  the  Universe 
manifests  to  us,  has  been  repeatedly  called  in  question,  and 
proved  to  be  inconsistent  with  itself,  or  with  accompanying 
assertions.  Yet  each  of  them  has  been  age  after  age  insisted 
on,  in  spite  of  a  secret  consciousness  that  it  would  not  bear 
examination.  Just  as  though  unaware  that  its  central  posi- 
tion was  impregnable,  Religion  has  obstinately  held  every 
outpost  long  after  it  was  obviously  indefensible.  And 
this  naturally  introduces  us  to  the  third  and  most  serious 
form  of  irreligion  which  Religion  has  displayed;  namely, 
an  imperfect  belief  in  that  which  it  especially  professes 
to  believe.  How  truly  its  central  position  is  impregnable, 
Religion  has  never  adequately  realized.  In  the  devoutest 
faith  as  we  habitually  see  it,  there  lies  hidden  an  innermost 
core  of  scepticism;  and  it  is  this  scepticism  which  causes 
that  dread  of  inquiry  displayed  by  Religion  when  face  to 
face  with  Science.  Obliged  to  abandon  one  by  one  the  su- 
perstitions it  once  tenaciously  held,  and  daily  finding  its 
cherished  beliefs  more  and  more  shaken,  Religion  shows  a 
secret  fear  that  all  things  may  some  day  be  explained;  and 


104  THE  RECONCILIATION. 

thus  itself  betrays  a  lurking  doubt  whether  that  Incompre- 
hensible Cause  of  which  it  is  conscious,  is  really  incompre- 
hensible. 

Of  Religion  then,  we  must  always  remember,  that  amid 
its  many  errors  and  corruptions  it  has  asserted  and  diffused  a 
supreme  verity.  From  the  first,  the  recognition  of  this  su- 
preme verity,  in  however  imperfect  a  manner,  has  been  its 
vital  element;  and  its  various  defects,  once  extreme  but 
gradually  diminishing,  have  been  so  many  failures  to  recog- 
nize in  full  that  which  it  recognized  in  part.  The  truly  re- 
ligious element  of  Religion  has  always  been  good;  that 
which  has  proved  untenable  in  doctrine  and  vicious  in  prac- 
tice, has  been  its  irreligious  element;  and  from  this  it  has 
been  ever  undergoing  purification. 

§  29.  And  now  observe  that  all  along,  the  agent  which 
has  effected  the  purification  has  been  Science.  "We  habitu- 
ally overlook  the  fact  that  this  has  been  one  of  its  functions. 
Religion  ignores  its  immense  debt  to  Science;  and  Science 
is  scarcely  at  all  conscious  how  much  Religion  owes  it. 
Yet  it  is  demonstrable  that  every  step  by  which  Religion 
has  progressed  from  its  first  low  conception  tot  the  compara- 
tively high  one  it  has  now  reached,  Science  has  helped  it,  or 
rather  forced  it,  to  take ;  and  that  even  now,  Science  is  urg- 
ing further  steps  in  the  same  direction. 

Using  the  word  Science  in  its  true  sense,  as  comprehend- 
ing all  positive  and  definite  knowledge  of  the  order  existing 
among  surrounding  phenomena,  it  becomes  manifest  that 
from  the  outset,  the  discovery  of  an  established  order  has 
modified  that  conception  of  disorder,  or  undetermined  order, 
which  underlies  every  superstition.  As  fast  as  experience 
proves  that  certain  familiar  changes  always  happen  in  the 
same  sequence,  there  begins  to  fade  from  the  mind  the  con- 
ception of  a  special  personality  to  whose  variable  will  they 
were  before  ascribed.  And  when,  step  by  step,  accumu- 
lating observations  do  the  like  with  the  less  familiar  changes, 


THE  RECONCILIATION.  105 

a  similar  modification  of  belief  takes  place  with  respect 
to  them. 

While  this  process  seems  to  those  who  effect,  and  those 
who  undergo  it,  an  anti-religions  one,  it  is  really  the  reverse. 
Instead  of  the  specific  comprehensible  agency  before  as- 
signed, there  is  substituted  a  less  specific  and  less  compre- 
hensible agency;  and  though  this,  standing  in  opposition  to 
the  previous  one,  cannot  at  first  call  forth  the  same  feeling, 
yet,  as  being  less  comprehensible,  it  must  eventually  call 
forth  this  feeling  more  fully.  Take  an  instance.    Of 

old  the  Sun  was  regarded  as  the  chariot  of  a  god,  drawn  by 
horses.  How  far  the  idea  thus  grossly  expressed,  was 
idealized,  we  need  not  inquire.  It  suffices  to  remark  that 
this  accounting  for  the  apparent  motion  of  the  Sun  by  an 
agency  like  certain  visible  terrestrial  agencies,  reduced  a 
daily  wonder  to  the  level  of  the  commonest  intellect. 
When,  many  centuries  after,  Kepler  discovered  that  the 
planets  moved  round  the  Sun  in  ellipses  and  described 
equal  areas  in  equal  times,  he  concluded  that  in  each  planet 
there  must  exist  a  spirit  to  guide  its  movements.  Here  we 
see  that  with  the  progress  of  Science,  there  had  disap- 
peared the  idea  of  a  gross  mechanical  traction,  such  as  was 
first  assigned  in  the  case  of  the  Sun ;  but  that  while  for  this 
there  was  substituted  an  indefinite  and  less-easily  conceiva- 
ble force,  it  was  still  thought  needful  to  assume  a  special  per- 
sonal agent  as  the  cause  of  the  regular  irregularity  of  mo- 
tion. When,  finally,  it  was  proved  that  these  planetary 
revolutions  with  all  their  variations  and  disturbances,  con- 
formed to  one  universal  law — when  the  presiding  spirits 
which  Kepler  conceived  were  set  aside,  and  the  force  of 
gravitation  put  in  their  place;  the  change  was  really  the 
abolition  of  an  imaginable  agency,  and  the  substitution  of 
an  unimaginable  one.  For  though  the  law  of  gravitation 
is  within  our  mental  grasp,  it  is  impossible  to  realize  in 
thought  \\\e  force  of  gravitation.  Newton  himself  confessed 
the  force  of  gravitation  to  be  incomprehensible  without  the 
9 


106  THE  RECONCILIATION. 

intermediation  of  an  ether;  and,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
(§  18,)  the  assumption  of  an  ether  does  not  in  the  least 
help  us.  Thus  it  is  with  Science  in  general.     Its 

progress  in  grouping  particular  relations  of  phenomena 
under  laws,  and  these  special  laws  under  laws  more  and 
more  general,  is  of  necessity  a  progress  to  causes  that  are 
more  and  more  abstract.  And  causes  more  and  more  ab- 
stract, are  of  necessity  causes  less  and  less  conceivable; 
since  the  formation  of  an  abstract  conception  involves  the 
dropping  of  certain  concrete  elements  of  thought.  Hence 
the  most  abstract  conception,  to  which  Science  is  ever  slowly 
approaching,  is  one  that  merges  into  the  inconceivable  or 
unthinkable,  by  the  dropping  of  all  concrete  elements  of 
thought.  And  so  is  justified  the  assertion,  that  the  beliefs 
which  Science  has  forced  upon  Religion,  have  been  intrin- 
sically more  religious  than  those  which  they  supplanted. 

Science  however,  like  Religion,  has  but  very  incomplete- 
ly fulfilled  its  office.  As  Religion  has  fallen  short  of  its 
function  in  so  far  as  it  has  been  irreligious;  so  has  Science 
fallen  short  of  its  function  in  so  far  as  it  has  been  unscien- 
tific. Let  us  note  the  several  parallelisms.  In  its  ear- 
lier stages,  Science,  while  it  began  to  teach  the  constant  rela- 
tions of  phenomena,  and  so  discredited  the  belief  in  separate 
personalities  as  the  causes  of  them,  itself  substituted  the  be- 
lief in  causal  agencies  which,  if  not  personal,  were  yet  con- 
crete. When  certain  facts  were  said  to  show  "  Nature's 
abhorrence  of  a  vacuum,"  when  the  properties  of  gold  were 
explained  as  due  to  some  entity  called  "  aureity,"  and  when 
the  phenomena  of  life  were  attributed  to  "  a  vital  princi- 
ple; "  there  was  set  up  a  mode  of  interpreting  the  facts, 
which,  while  antagonistic  to  the  religious  mode,  because 
assigning  other  agencies,  was  also  unscientific,  because  it 
professed  to  know  that  about  which  nothing  was  known. 
Having  abandoned  these  metaphysical  agencies — having 
seen  that  they  were  not  independent  existences,  but  merely 
special  combinations  of  general  causes,  Science  has  more  re- 


THE  RECONCILIATION".  107 

cently  ascribed  extensive  groups  of  phenomena  to  electric- 
ity, chemical  affinity,  and  other  like  general  powers.  But 
in  speaking  of  these  as  ultimate  and  independent  entities, 
Science  has  preserved  substantially  the  same  attitude  as  be- 
fore. Accounting  thus  for  all  phenomena,  those  of  Life 
and  Thought  included,  it  has  not  only  maintained  its  seem- 
ing antagonism  to  Religion,  by  alleging  agencies  of  a  radi- 
cally unlike  kind;  but,  in  so  far  as  it  has  tacitly  assumed  a 
knowledge  of  these  agencies,  it  has  continued  unscientific. 
At  the  present  time,  however,  the  most  advanced  men  of 
science  are  abandoning  these  later  conceptions,  as  their  pre- 
decessors abandoned  the  earlier  ones.  Magnetism,  heat, 
light  &c,  which  were  awhile  since  spoken  of  as  so  many 
distinct  imponderables,  physicists  are  now  beginning  to  re- 
gard as  different  modes  of  manifestation  of  some  one  uni- 
versal force;  and  in  so  doing  are  ceasing  to  think  of  this 
force  as  comprehensible.  In  each  phase  of  its  prog- 

ress, Science  has  thus  stopped  short  with  superficial  solu- 
tions— has  unscientifically  neglected  to  ask  what  was  the 
nature  of  the  agents  it  so  familiarly  invoked.  Though  in 
each  succeeding  phase  it  has  gone  a  little  deeper,  and 
merged  its  supposed  agents  in  more  general  and  abstract 
ones,  it  has  still,  as  before,  rested  content  with  these  as 
if  they  were  ascertained  realities.  And  this,  which  has 
all  along  been  the  unscientific  characteristic  of  Science,  has 
all  along  been  a  part  cause  of  its  conflict  with  Religion. 

§  30.  "We  see  then  that  from  the  first,  the  faults  of  both 
Religion  and  Science  have  been  the  faults  of  imperfect  de- 
velopment. Originally  a  mere  rudiment,  each  has  been 
growing  into  a  more  complete  form ;  the  vice  of  each  has  in 
all  times  been  its  incompleteness;  the  disagreements  be- 
tween them  have  throughout  been  nothing  more  than  the 
consequences  of  their  incompleteness;  and  as  they  reach 
their  final  forms,  they  come  into  entire  harmony. 

The  progress  of  intelligence  has  throughout  been  dual. 


108  THE  RECONCILIATION. 

Though  it  has  not  seemed  so  to  those  who  made  it,  every  step 
in  advance  has  been  a  step  towards  both  the  natural  and  the 
supernatural.  The  better  interpretation  of  each  phenome- 
non has  been,  on  the  one  hand,  the  rejection  of  a  cause  that 
was  relatively  conceivable  in  its  nature  but  unknown  in  the 
order  of  its  actions,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  adoption  of 
a  cause  that  was  known  in  the  order  of  its  actions  but  rela- 
tively inconceivable  in  its  nature.  The  first  advance  out  of 
universal  fetishism,  manifestly  involved  the  conception  of 
agencies  less  assimilable  to  the  familiar  agencies  of  men  and 
animals,  and  therefore  less  understood;  while,  at  the  same 
time,  such  newly-conceived  agencies  in  so  far  as  they  were 
distinguished  by  their  uniform  effects,  were  better  under- 
stood than  those  they  replaced.  All  subsequent  advances 
display  the  same  double  result.  Every  deeper  and  more 
general  power  arrived  at  as  a  cause  of  phenomena,  has  been 
at  once  less  comprehensible  than  the  special  ones  it  super- 
seded, in  the  sense  of  being  less  definitely  representable  in 
thought;  while  it  has  been  more  comprehensible  in  the 
sense  that  its  actions  have  been  more  completely  predicable. 
The  progress  has  thus  been  as  much  towards  the  establish- 
ment of  a  positively  unknown  as  towards  the  establishment 
of  a  positively  known.  Though  as  knowledge  approaches  its 
culmination,  every  unaccountable  and  seemingly  supernatu- 
ral fact,  is  brought  into  the  category  of  facts  that  are  ac- 
countable or  natural ;  yet,  at  the  same  time,  all  accountable 
or  natural  facts  are  proved  to  be  in  their  ultimate  genesis  un- 
accountable and  supernatural.  And  so  there  arise  two  anti- 
thetical states  of  mind,  answering  to  the  opposite  sides  of 
that  existence  about  which  we  think.  While  our  conscious- 
ness of  Xature  under  the  one  aspect  constitutes  Science, 
our  consciousness  of  it  under  the  other  aspect  constitutes 
Religion. 

Otherwise  contemplating  the  facts,  we  may  say  that  Re- 
ligion and  Science  have  been  undergoing  a  slow  differentia- 
tion ;  and  that  their  ceaseless  conflicts  have  been  due  to  the 


THE  RECONCILIATION.  109 

imperfect  separation  of  their  spheres  and  functions.  Reli- 
gion has,  from  the  first,  struggled  to  unite  more  or  less  sci- 
ence with  its  nescience;  Science  has,  from  the  first,  kept 
hold  of  more  or  less  nescience  as  though  it  were  a  part  of 
science.  Each  has  been  obliged  gradually  to  relinquish 
that  territory  which  it  wrongly  claimed,  while  it  has  gained 
from  the  other  that  to  which  it  had  a  right ;  and  the  antago- 
nism between  them  has  been  an  inevitable  accompaniment 
of  this  process.  A  more  specific  statement  will  make  this 
clear.  Religion,  though  at  the  outset  it  asserted  a 

mystery,  also  made  numerous  definite  assertions  respecting 
this  mystery — professed  to  know  its  nature  in  the  minutest 
detail,  and  in  so  far  as  it  claimed  positive  knowledge,  it  tres- 
passed upon  the  province  of  Science.  From  the  times  of 
early  mythologies,  when  such  intimate  acquaintance  with 
the  mystery  was  alleged,  down  to  our  own  days,  when  but  a 
few  abstract  and  vague  propositions  are  maintained,  Re- 
ligion has  been  compelled  by  Science  to  give  up  one  after 
another  of  its  dogmas — of  those  assumed  cognitions  which 
it  could  not  substantiate.  In  the  mean  time,  Science  substi- 
tuted for  the  personalities  to  which  Religion  ascribed  phe- 
nomena, certain  metaphysical  entities;  and  in  doing  this 
it  trespassed  on  the  province  of  Religion;  since  it  classed 
among  the  things  which  it  comprehended,  certain  forms  of 
the  incomprehensible.  Partly  by  the  criticisms  of  Re- 
ligion, which  has  occasionally  called  in  question  its  assump- 
tions, and  partly  as  a  consequence  of  spontaneous  growth, 
Science  has  been  obliged  to  abandon  these  attempts  to  in- 
clude within  the  boundaries  of  knowledge  that  which  cannot 
be  known;  and  has  so  yielded  up  to  Religion  that  which  of 
right  belonged  to  it.  So  long  as  this  process  of  dif- 

ferentiation is  incomplete,  more  or  less  of  antagonism  must 
continue.  Gradually  as  the  limits  of  possible  cognition  are 
established,  the  causes  of  conflict  will  diminish.  And  a  per- 
manent peace  will  be  reached  when  Science  becomes  fully 
convinced  that  its  explanations  are  proximate  and  relative; 


HO  THE   RECONCILIATION. 

while  Religion  becomes  fully  convinced  that  the  mystery  it 
contemplates  is  ultimate  and  absolute. 

Religion  and  Science  are  therefore  necessary  correla- 
tives. As  already  hinted,  they  stand  respectively  for  those 
two  antithetical  modes  of  consciousness  which  cannot  exist 
asunder.  A  known  cannot  be  thought  of  apart  from  an  un- 
known; nor  can  an  unknown  be  thought  of  apart  from  a 
known.  And  by  consequence  neither  can  become  more  dis- 
tinct without  giving  greater  distinctness  to  the  other.  To 
carry  further  a  metaphor  before  used, — they  are  the  positive 
and  negative  poles  of  thought;  of  which  neither  can  gain 
in  intensity  without  increasing  the  intensity  of  the  other. 

§  31.  Thus  the  consciousness  of  an  Inscrutable  Power 
manifested  to  us  through  all  phenomena,  has  been  growing 
ever  clearer;  and  must  eventually  be  freed  from  its  imper- 
fections. The  certainty  that  on  the  one  hand  such  a  Power 
exists,  while  on  the  other  hand  its  nature  transcends  intui- 
tion and  is  beyond  imagination,  is  the  certainty  towards 
which  intelligence  has  from  the  first  been  progressing.  To 
this  conclusion  Science  inevitably  arrives  as  it  reaches  its 
confines;  while  to  this  conclusion  Religion  is  irresistibly 
driven  by  criticism.  And  satisfying  as  it  does  the  demands 
of  the  most  rigorous  logic  at  the  same  time  that  it  gives  the 
religious  sentiment  the  widest  possible  sphere  of  action,  it 
is  the  conclusion  we  are  bound  to  accept  without  reserve  or 
qualification. 

Some  do  indeed  allege  that  though  the  Ultimate  Cause 
of  things  cannot  really  be  thought  of  by  us  as  having  speci- 
fied attributes,  it  is  yet  incumbent  upon  us  to  assert  these 
attributes.  Though  the  forms  of  our  consciousness  are  such 
that  the  Absolute  cannot  in  any  manner  or  degree  be 
brought  within  them,  we  are  nevertheless  told  that  we  must 
represent  the  Absolute  to  ourselves  under  these  forms.  As 
writes  Mr  Mansel,  in  the  work  from  which  I  have  already 
quoted  largely — "  It  is  our  duty,  then,  to  think  of  God  as 


THE  RECONCILIATION.  HI 

personal;  and  it  is  our  duty  to  believe  that  He  is  in- 
finite." 

That  this  is  not  the  conclusion  here  adopted,  needs  hard- 
ly be  said.  If  there  be  any  meaning  in  the  foregoing  argu- 
ments, duty  requires  us  neither  to  affirm  nor  deny  personal- 
ity. Our  duty  is  to  submit  ourselves  with  all  humility  to  the 
established  limits  of  our  intelligence ;  and  not  perversely  to 
rebel  against  them.  Let  those  who  can,  believe  that  there  is 
eternal  war  set  between  our  intellectual  faculties  and  our 
moral  obligations.  I  for  one,  admit  no  such  radical  vice  in 
the  constitution  of  things. 

This  which  to  most  will  seem  an  essentially  irreligious 
position,  is  an  essentially  religious  one — nay  is  the  religious 
one,  to  which,  as  already  shown,  all  others  are  but  approxi- 
mations. In  the  estimate  it  implies  of  the  Ultimate  Cause,  it 
does  not  fall  short  of  the  alternative  position,  but  exceeds  it. 
Those  who  espouse  this  alternative  position,  make  the  erro- 
neous assumption  that  the  choice  is  between  personality  and 
something  lower  than  personality;  whereas  the  choice  is 
rather  between  personality  and  something  higher.  Is  it  not 
just  possible  that  there  is  a  mode  of  being  as  much  tran- 
scending Intelligence  and  Will,  as  these  transcend  mechani- 
cal motion?  It  is  true  that  we  are  totally  unable  to  conceive 
any  such  higher  mode  of  being.  But  this  is  not  a  reason  for 
questioning  its  existence;  it  is  rather  the  reverse.  Have  we 
not  seen  how  utterly  incompetent  our  minds  are  to  form 
even  an  approach  to  a  conception  of  that  which  underlies  all 
phenomena  ?  Is  it  not  proved  that  this  incompetency  is  the 
incompetency  of  the  Conditioned  to  grasp  the  Uncondi- 
tioned? Does  it  not  follow  that  the  Ultimate  Cause  cannot 
in  any  respect  be  conceived  by  us  because  it  is  in  every  re- 
spect greater  than  can  be  conceived?  And  may  we  not 
therefore  rightly  refrain  from  assigning  to  it  any  attributes 
whatever,  on  the  ground  that  such  attributes,  derived  as  they 
must  be  from  our  own  natures,  are  not  elevations  but  degra- 
dations?   Indeed  it  seems  somewhat  strange  that  men  should 


112  THE  RECONCILIATION. 

suppose  the  highest  worship  to  lie  in  assimilating  the  object 
of  their  worship  to  themselves.  Not  in  asserting  a  tran- 
scendant  difference,  but  in  asserting  a  certain  likeness,  con- 
sists the  element  of  their  creed  which  they  think  essential. 
It  is  true  that  from  the  time  when  the  rudest  savages  imag- 
ined the  causes  of  all  things  to  be  creatures  of  flesh  and  blood 
like  themselves,  down  to  our  own  time,  the  degree  of  as- 
sumed likeness  has  been  diminishing.  But  though  a  bodily 
form  and  substance  similar  to  that  of  man,  has  long  since 
ceased,  among  cultivated  races,  to  be  a  literally-conceived 
attribute  of  the  Ultimate  Cause — though  the  grosser  human 
desires  have  been  also  rejected  as  unfit  elements  of  the  con- 
ception— though  there  is  some  hesitation  in  ascribing  even 
the  higher  human  feelings,  save  in  greatly  idealized  shapes ; 
yet  it  is  still  thought  not  only  proper,  but  imperative,  to 
ascribe  the  most  abstract  qualities  of  our  nature.  To  think 
of  the  Creative  Power  as  in  all  respects  anthropomorphous, 
is  now  considered  impious  by  men  who  yet  hold  themselves 
bound  to  think  of  the  Creative  Power  as  in  some  respects 
anthropomorphous;  and  who  do  not  see  that  the  one  pro- 
ceeding is  but  an  evanescent  form  of  the  other.  And  then, 
most  marvellous  of  all,  this  course  is  persisted  in  even  by 
those  who  contend  that  we  are  wholly  unable  to  frame  any 
conception  whatever  of  the  Creative  Power.  After  it  has 
been  shown  that  every  supposition  respecting  the  genesis  of 
the  Universe  commits  us  to  alternative  impossibilities  of 
thought — after  it  has  been  shown  that  each  attempt  to  con- 
ceive real  existence  ends  in  an  intellectual  suicide — after  it 
has  been  shown  why,  by  the  very  constitution  of  our  minds, 
we  are  eternally  debarred  from  thinking  of  the  Absolute ;  it 
is  still  asserted  that  we  ought  to  think  of  the  Absolute  thus 
and  thus.  In  all  imaginable  ways  we  find  thrust  upon  us  the 
truth,  that  we  are  not  permitted  to  know — nay  are  not  even 
permitted  to  conceive — that  Reality  which  is  behind  the 
veil  of  Appearance ;  and  yet  it  is  said  to  be  our  duty  to  be- 
lieve (and  in  so  far  to  conceive)  that  this  Reality  exists  in  a 


THE   RECONCILIATION.  113 

certain  denned  manner.     Shall  we  call  this  reverence?  or 
shall  we  call  it  the  reverse? 

Volumes  might  be  written  upon  the  impiety  of  the 
pious.  Through  the  printed  and  spoken  thoughts  of  relig- 
ious teachers,  may  almost  everywhere  be  traced  a  professed 
familiarity  with  the  ultimate  mystery  of  things,  which,  to 
say  the  least  of  it,  seems  anything  but  congruous  with  the 
accompanying  expressions  of  humility.  And  surprisingly 
enough,  those  tenets  which  most  clearly  display  this  famil- 
iarity, are  those  insisted  upon  as  forming  the  vital  elements 
of  religious  belief.  The  attitude  thus  assumed,  can  be  fitly 
represented  only  by  further  developing  a  simile  long  current 
in  theological  controversies — the  simile  of  the  watch.  If 
for  a  moment  we  made  the  grotesque  supposition  that  the 
tickings  and  other  movements  of  a  watch  constituted  a  kind 
of  consciousness;  and  that  a  watch  possessed  of  such  a  con- 
sciousness, insisted  on  regarding  the  watchmaker's  actions 
as  determined  like  its  own  by  springs  and  escapements; 
we  should  simply  complete  a  parallel  of  which  religious 
teachers  think  much.  And  were  we  to  suppose  that  a  watch 
not  only  formulated  the  cause  of  its  existence  in  these 
mechanical  terms,  but  held  that  watches  were  bound  out  of 
reverence  so  to  formulate  this  cause,  and  even  vituperated, 
as  atheistic  watches,  any  that  did  not  venture  so  to  formulate 
it ;  we  should  merely  illustrate  the  presumption  of  theologi- 
ans by  carrying  their  own  argument  a  step  further.  A 
few  extracts  will  bring  home  to  the  reader  the  justice  of  this 
comparison.  We  are  told,  for  example,  by  one  of  high 
repute  among  religious  thinkers,  that  the  Universe  is  "  the 
manifestation  and  abode  of  a  Free  Mind,  like  our  own ;  em- 
bodying His  personal  thought  in  its  adjustments,  realizing 
His  own  ideal  in  its  phenomena,  just  as  we  express  our  inner 
faculty  and  character  through  the  natural  language  of  an 
external  life.  In  this  view,  we  interpret  Nature  by  Human- 
ity; we  find  the  key  to  her  aspects  in  such  purposes  and 
affections  as  our  own  consciousness  enables  us  to  conceive; 


114:  THE   RECONCILIATION. 

we  look  everywhere  for  physical  signals  of  an  ever-living 
Will;  and  decipher  the  universe  as  the  autobiography  of 
an  Infinite  Spirit,  repeating  itself  in  miniature  within  our 
Finite  Spirit. "  The  same  writer  goes  still  further.  He 
not  only  thus  parallels  the  assimilation  of  the  watchmaker 
to  the  watch, — he  not  only  thinks  the  created  can  "  de- 
cipher "  "  the  autobiography"  of  the  Creating;  but  he 
asserts  that  the  necessary  limits  of  the  one  are  the  necessary 
limits  of  the  other.  The  primary  qualities  of  bodies,  he  says, 
"  belong  eternally  to  the  material  datum  objective  to  God  " 
and  control  his  acts;  while  the  secondary  ones  are  "  prod- 
ucts of  pure  Inventive  Reason  and  Determining  "Will  " — 
constitute  "  the  realm  of  Divine  originality."  *  *  * 
"  While  on  this  Secondary  field  His  Mind  and  ours  are  thus 
contrasted,  they  meet  in  resemblance  again  upon  the  Pri- 
mary: for  the  evolution  of  deductive  Reason  there  is  but 
one  track  possible  to  all  intelligences;  no  merurn arhitrium 
can  interchange  the  false  and  true,  or  make  more  than  one 
geometry,  one  scheme  of  pure  Physics,  for  all  worlds;  and 
the  Omnipotent  Architect  Himself,  in  realizing  the  Kosmi- 
cal  conception,  in  shaping  the  orbits  out  of  immensity  and 
determining  seasons  out  of  eternity,  could  but  follow  the 
laws  of  curvature,  measure  and  proportion."  That  is  to  say, 
the  Ultimate  Cause  is  like  a  human  mechanic,  not  only  as 
"  shaping  "  the  "  material  datum  objective  to  "  Him,  but 
also  as  being  obliged  to  conform  to  the  necessary  properties 
of  that  datum."  Xor  is  this  all.  There  follows  some  ac- 
count of  "  the  Divine  psychology,"  to  the  extent  of  saying 
that  "  we  learn  "  "  the  character  of  God — the  order  of  affec- 
tions in  Him  "  from  "  the  distribution  of  authority  in  the 
hierarchy  of  our  impulses."  In  other  words,  it  is  alleged 
that  the  Ultimate  Cause  has  desires  that  are  to  be  classed  as 
higher  and  lower  like  our  own.*  Every  one  has  heard 

of  the  king  who  wished  he  had  been  present  at  the  creation 

*  These  extracts  are  from  an  article  entitled  "  Nature  and  God,"  published 
in  the  National  Review  for  October,  1860. 


THE  RECONCILIATION.  115 

of  the  world,  that  lie  might  have  given  good  advice.  He 
was  humble  however  compared  with  those  who  profess  to 
understand  not  only  the  relation  of  the  Creating  to  the 
created,  but  also  how  the  Creating  is  constituted.  And  yet 
this  transcendent  audacity,  which  claims  to  penetrate  the 
secrets  of  the  Power  manifested  to  us  through  all  existence 
— nay  even  to  stand  behind  that  Power  and  note  the  condi- 
tions to  its  action — this  it  is  which  passes  current  as  piety! 
May  we  not  without  hesitation  affirm  that  a  sincere  recogni- 
tion of  the  truth  that  our  own  and  all  other  existence  is  a 
mystery  absolutely  and  for  ever  beyond  our  comprehension, 
contains  more  of  true  religion  than  all  the  dogmatic  theology 
ever  written? 

Meanwhile  let  us  recognize  whatever  of  permanent  good 
there  is  in  these  persistent  attempts  to  frame  conceptions  of 
that  which  cannot  be  conceived.  From  the  beginning  it  has 
been  only  through  the  successive  failures  of  such  concep- 
tions to  satisfy  the  mind,  that  higher  and  higher  ones  have 
been  gradually  reached ;  and  doubtless,  the  conceptions  now 
current  are  indispensable  as  transitional  modes  of  thought. 
Even  more  than  this  may  be  willingly  conceded.  It  is  possi- 
ble, nay  probable,  that  under  their  most  abstract  forms,  ideas 
of  this  order  will  always  continue  to  occupy  the  background 
of  our  consciousness.  Very  likely  there  will  ever  remain  a 
need  to  give  shape  to  that  indefinite  sense  of  an  Ultimate 
Existence,  which  forms  the  basis  of  our  intelligence.  We 
shall  always  be  under  the  necessity  of  contemplating  it  as 
some  mode  of  being;  that  is — of  representing  it  to  ourselves 
in  some  form  of  thought,  however  vague.  And  we  shall  not 
err  in  doing  this  so  long  as  we  treat  every  notion  we  thus 
frame  as  merely  a  symbol,  utterly  without  resemblance  to 
that  for  which  it  stands.  Perhaps  the  constant  formation  of 
such  symbols  and  constant  rejection  of  them  as  inadequate, 
may  be  hereafter,  as  it  has  hitherto  been,  a  means  of  disci- 
pline. Perpetually  to  construct  ideas  requiring  the  utmost 
stretch  of  our  faculties,  and  perpetually  to  find  that  such 


116  THE  RECONCILIATION. 

ideas  must  be  abandoned  as  futile  imaginations,  may  realize 
to  us  more  fully  than  any  other  course,  the  greatness  of 
that  which  we  strive  to  grasp.  Such  efforts  and  fail- 
ures may  serve  to  maintain  in  our  minds  a  due 
sense  of  the  incommensurable  difference  between  the  Con- 
ditioned and  the  Unconditioned.  By  continually  seeking 
to  know  and  being  continually  thrown  back  with  a  deepened 
conviction  of  the  impossibility  of  knowing,  we  may  keep 
alive  the  consciousness  that  it  is  alike  our  highest  wisdom 
and  our  highest  duty  to  regard  that  through  which  all  things 
exist  as  The  Unknowable. 

§  32.  An  immense  majority  will  refuse  with  more  or 
less  of  indignation,  a  belief  seeming  to  them  so  shadowy  and 
indefinite.  Having  always  embodied  the  Ultimate  Cause  so 
far  as  was  needful  to  its  mental  realization,  they  must  neces- 
sarily resent  the  substitution  of  an  Ultimate  Cause  which 
cannot  be  mentally  realized  at  all.  "  You  offer  us,"  they 
say,  "  an  unthinkable  abstraction  in  place  of  a  Being  to- 
wards whom  we  may  entertain  definite  feelings.  Though 
we  are  told  that  the  Absolute  is  real,  yet  since  we  are  not  al- 
lowed to  conceive  it,  it  might  as  well  be  a  pure  negation.  In- 
stead of  a  Power  which  we  can  regard  as  having  some  sym- 
pathy with  us,  you  would  have  us  contemplate  a  Power  to 
which  no  emotion  whatever  can  be  ascribed.  And  so  we  are 
to  be  deprived  of  the  very  substance  of  our  faith." 

This  kind  of  protest  of  necessity  accompanies  every 
change  from  a  lower  creed  to  a  higher.  The  belief  in  a  com- 
munity of  nature  between  himself  and  the  object  of  his 
worship,  has  always  been  to  man  a  satisfactory  one ;  and  he 
has  always  accepted  with  reluctance  those  successively  less 
concrete  conceptions  which  have  been  forced  upon  him. 
Doubtless,  in  all  times  and  places,  it  has  consoled  the  barba- 
rian to  think  of  his  deities  as  so  exactly  like  himself  in  na- 
ture, that  they  could  be  bribed  by  offerings  of  food ;  and  the 
assurance  that  deities  could  not  be  so  propitiated,  must  have 


THE  RECONCILIATION.  117 

been  repugnant,  because  it  deprived  him  of  an  easy  method 
of  gaining  supernatural  protection.  To  the  Greeks  it  was 
manifestly  a  source  of  comfort  that  on  occasions  of  difficulty 
they  could  obtain,  through  oracles,  the  advice  of  their  gods, 
— nay,  might  even  get  the  personal  aid  of  their  gods  in  bat- 
tle; and  it  was  probably  a  very  genuine  anger  which  they 
visited  upon  philosophers  who  called  in  question  these  gross 
ideas  of  their  mythology.  A  religion  which  teaches  the 
Hindoo  that  it  is  impossible  to  purchase  eternal  happiness 
by  placing  himself  under  the  wheel  of  Juggernaut,  can 
scarcely  fail  to  seem  a  cruel  one  to  him;  since  it  deprives 
him  of  the  pleasurable  consciousness  that  he  can  at  will  ex- 
change miseries  for  joys.  Nor  is  it  less  clear  that  to  our 
Catholic  ancestors,  the  beliefs  that  crimes  could  be  com- 
pounded for  by  the  building  of  churches,  that  their  own 
punishments  and  those  of  their  relatives  could  be  abridged 
by  the  saying  of  masses,  and  that  divine  aid  or  forgiveness 
might  be  gained  through  the  intercession  of  saints,  were 
highly  solacing  ones;  and  that  Protestantism,  in  substitut- 
ing the  conception  of  a  God  so  comparatively  unlike  our- 
selves as  not  to  be  influenced  by  such  methods,  must  have 
appeared  to  them  hard  and  cold.  Naturally,  therefore,  we 
must  expect  a  further  step  in  the  same  direction  to  meet  with 
a  similar  resistance  from  outraged  sentiments.  No 

mental  revolution  can  be  accomplished  without  more  or  less 
of  laceration.  Be  it  a  change  of  habit  or  a  change  of  con- 
viction, it  must,  if  the  habit  of  conviction  be  strong,  do  vio- 
lence to  some  of  the  feelings ;  and  these  must  of  course  op- 
pose it.  For  long-experienced,  and  therefore  definite, 
sources  of  satisfaction,  have  to  be  substituted  sources  of  sat- 
isfaction that  have  not  been  experienced,  and  are  therefore 
indefinite.  That  which  is  relatively  well  known  and  real, 
has  to  be  given  up  for  that  which  is  relatively  unknown  and 
ideal.  And  of  course  such  an  exchange  cannot  be  made 
without  a  conflict  involving  pain.  Especially  then 

must  there  arise  a  strong  antagonism  to  any  alteration  in  so 


118  •  THE  RECONCILIATION. 

deep  and  vital  a  conception  as  that  with  which  we  are  here 
dealing.  Underlying,  as  this  conception  does,  all  others,  a 
modification  of  it  threatens  to  reduce  the  superstructure  to 
ruins.  Or  to  change  the  metaphor — being  the  root  with 
which  are  connected  our  ideas  of  goodness,  rectitude,  or 
duty,  it  appears  impossible  that  it  should  be  transformed 
without  causing  these  to  wither  away  and  die.  The  whole 
higher  part  of  the  nature  almost  of  necessity  takes  up  arms 
against  a  change  which,  by  destroying  the  established  asso- 
ciations of  thought,  seems  to  eradicate  morality. 

This  is  by  no  means  all  that  has  to  be  said  for  such  pro- 
tests. There  is  a  much  deeper  meaning  in  them.  They  do 
not  simply  express  the  natural  repugnance  to  a  revolution  of 
belief,  here  made  specially  intense  by  the  vital  importance 
of  the  belief  to  be  revolutionized ;  but  they  also  express  an 
instinctive  adhesion  to  a  belief  that  is  in  one  sense  the  best 
— the  best  for  those  who  thus  cling  to  it,  though  not  ab- 
stractedly the  best.  For  here  let  me  remark  that 
what  were  above  spoken  of  as  the  imperfections  of  Religion, 
at  first  great  but  gradually  diminishing,  have  been  imperfec- 
tions only  as  measured  by  an  absolute  standard ;  and  not  as 
measured  by  a  relative  one.  Speaking  generally,  the  relig- 
ion curent  in  each  age  and  among  each  people,  has  been  as 
near  an  approximation  to  the  truth  as  it  was  then  and  there 
possible  for  men  to  receive :  the  more  or  less  concrete  forms 
in  which  it  has  embodied  the  truth,  have  simply  been  the 
means  of  making  thinkable  what  would  otherwise  have  been 
unthinkable;  and  so  have  for  the  time  being  served  to  in- 
crease its  impressiveness.  If  we  consider  the  con- 
ditions of  the  case,  we  shall  find  this  to  be  an  unavoidable 
conclusion.  During  each  stage  of  evolution,  men  must 
think  in  such  terms  of  thought  as  they  possess.  While  all 
the  conspicuous  changes  of  which  they  can  observe  the  ori- 
gins, have  men  and  animals  as  antecedents,  they  are  unable 
to  think  of  antecedents  in  general  under  any  other  shapes; 
and  hence  creative  agencies  are  of  necessity  conceived  by 


THE  RECONCILIATION.  119 

them  in  these  shapes.  If  during  this  phase,  the  concrete 
conceptions  were  taken  from  them,  and  the  attempt  made  to 
give  them  comparatively  abstract  conceptions,  the  result 
would  be  to  leave  their  minds  with  none  at  all;  since  the 
substituted  ones  could  not  be  mentally  represented.  Simi- 
larly with  every  successive  stage  of  religious  belief,  down  to 
the  last.  Though,  as  accumulating  experiences  slowly  mo- 
dify the  earliest  ideas  of  causal  personalities,  there  grow  up 
more  general  and  vague  ideas  of  them;  yet  these  cannot  be 
at  once  replaced  by  others  still  more  general  and  vague. 
Further  experiences  must  supply  the  needful  further  ab- 
stractions, before  the  mental  void  left  by  the  destruction  of 
such  inferior  ideas  can  be  filled  by  ideas  of  a  superior  order. 
And  at  the  present  time,  the  refusal  to  abandon  a  relatively 
concrete  notion  for  a  relatively  abstract  one,  implies  the  ina- 
bility to  frame  the  relatively  abstract  one;  and  so  proves 
that  the  change  would  be  premature  and  injurious.  Still 

more  clearly  shall  we  see  the  injuriousness  of  any  such 
premature  change,  on  observing  that  the  effects  of  a  belief 
upon  conduct  must  be  diminished  in  proportion  as  the  vivid- 
ness with  which  it  is  realized  becomes  less.  Evils  and  bene- 
fits akin  to  those  which  the  savage  has  personally  felt,  or 
learned  from  those  who  have  felt  them,  are  the  only  evils 
and  benefits  he  can  understand;  and  these  must  be  looked 
for  as  coming  in  ways  like  those  of  which  he  has  had  ex- 
perience. His  deities  must  be  imagined  to  have  like  motives 
and  passions  and  methods  with  the  beings  around  him;  for 
motives  and  passions  and  methods  of  a  higher  character, 
being  unknown  to  him,  and  in  great  measure  unthinkable  by 
him,  cannot  be  so  realized  in  thought  as  to  influence  his 
deeds.  During  every  phase  of  civilization,  the  actions  of 
the  Unseen  Keality,  as  well  as  the  resulting  rewards  and 
punishments,  being  conceivable  only  in  such  forms  as  ex- 
perience furnishes,  to  supplant  them  by  higher  ones  before 
wider  experiences  have  made  higher  ones  conceivable,  is  to 
set  up  vague  and  uninfluential  motives  for  definite  and  in- 


120 


THE  RECONCILIATION. 


fluential  ones.  Even  now,  for  the  great  mass  of  men,  un- 
able through  lack  of  culture  to  trace  out  with  due  clear- 
ness those  good  and  bad  consequences  which  conduct  brings 
round  through  the  established  order  of  the  Unknowable,  it 
is  needful  that  there  should  be  vividly  depicted  future  tor- 
ments and  future  joys — pains  and  pleasures  of  a  definite 
kind,  produced  in  a  manner  direct  and  simple  enough  to  be 
clearly  imagined.  Nay  still  more  must  be  conceded. 

Few  if  any  are  as  yet  fitted  wholly  to  dispense  with  such 
conceptions  as  are  current.  The  highest  abstractions  take  so 
great  a  mental  power  to  realize  with  any  vividness,  and  are 
so  inoperative  upon  conduct  unless  they  are  vividly  realized, 
that  their  regulative  effects  must  for  a  long  period  to  come 
be  appreciable  on  but  a  small  minority.  To  see  clearly  how 
a  right  or  wrong  act  generates  consequences,  internal  and 
external,  that  go  on  branching  out  more  widely  as  years 
progress,  requires  a  rare  power  of  analysis.  To  mentally 
represent  even  a  single  series  of  these  consequences,  as  it 
stretches  out  into  the  remote  future,  requires  an  equally  rare 
power  of  imagination.  And  to  estimate  these  consequences 
in  their  totality,  ever  multiplying  in  number  while  dimin- 
ishing in  intensity,  requires  a  grasp  of  thought  possessed  by 
none.  Yet  it  is  only  by  such  analysis,  such  imagination,  and 
such  grasp,  that  conduct  can  be  rightly  guided  in  the  ab- 
sence of  all  other  control :  only  so  can  ultimate  rewards  and 
penalties  be  made  to  outweigh  proximate  pains  and  plea- 
sures. Indeed,  were  it  not  that  throughout  the  progress  of 
the  race,  men's  experiences  of  the  effects  of  conduct  have 
been  slowly  generalized  into  principles — were  it  not  that 
these  principles  have  been  from  generation  to  generation  in- 
sisted on  by  parents,  upheld  by  public  opinion,  sanctified  by 
religion,  and  enforced  by  threats  of  eternal  damnation  for 
disobedience — were  it  not  that  under  these  potent  influ- 
ences, habits  have  been  modified,  and  the  feelings  proper  to 
them  made  innate — were  it  not,  in  short,  that  we  have  been 
rendered  in  a  considerable  degree  organically  moral;  it  is 


THE  RECONCILIATION.  121 

certain  that  disastrous  results  would  ensue  from  the  removal 
of  those  strong  and  distinct  motives  which  the  current  belief 
supplies.  Even  as  it  is,  those  who  relinquish  the  faith  in 
which  they  have  been  brought  up,  for  this  most  abstract 
faith  in  which  Science  and  Religion  unite,  may  not  uncom- 
monly fail  to  act  up  to  their  convictions.  Left  to  their  or- 
ganic morality,  enforced  only  by  general  reasonings  imper- 
fectly wrought  out  and  difficult  to  keep  before  the  mind, 
their  defects  of  nature  will  often  come  out  more-  strongly 
than  they  would  have  done  under  their  previous  creed.  The 
substituted  creed  can  become  adequately  operative  only 
when  it  becomes,  like  the  present  one,  an  element  in  early 
education,  and  has  the  support  of  a  strong  social  sanction. 
Nor  will  men  be  quite  ready  for  it  until,  through  the  con- 
tinuance of  a  discipline  which  has  already  partially  moulded 
them  to  the  conditions  of  social  existence,  they  are  com- 
pletely moulded  to  those  conditions. 

We  must  therefore  recognize  the  resistance  to  a  change 
of  theological  opinion,  as  in  great  measure  salutary.  It  is 
not  simply  that  strong  and  deep-rooted  feelings  are  neces- 
sarily excited  to  antagonism — it  is  not  simply  that  the  high- 
est moral  sentiments  join  in  the  condemnation  of  a  change 
which  seems  to  undermine  their  authority;  but  it  is  that  a 
real  adaptation  exists  between  an  established  belief  and  the 
natures  of  those  who  defend  it ;  and  that  the  tenacity  of  the 
defence  measures  the  completeness  of  the  adaptation. 
Forms  of  religion,  like  forms  of  government,  must  be  fit  for 
those  who  live  under  them;  and  in  the  one  case  as  in  the 
other,  that  form  which  is  fittest  is  that  for  which  there  is  an 
instinctive  preference.  As  certainly  as  a  barbarous  race 
needs  a  harsh  terrestrial  rule,  and  habitually  shows  attach- 
ment to  a  despotism  capable  of  the  necessary  rigour ;  so  cer- 
tainly does  such  a  race  need  a  belief  in  a  celestial  rule  that 
is  similarly  harsh,  and  habitually  shows  attachment  to  such 
a  belief.  And  just  in  the  same  way  that  the  sudden  substi- 
tution of  free  institutions  for  tvrannical  ones,  is  sure  to  be 
10 


122  THE  RECONCILIATION. 

followed  by  a  reaction;  so,  if  a  creed  full  of  dreadful  ideal 
penalties  is  all  at  once  replaced  by  one  presenting  ideal  pen- 
alties that  are  comparatively  gentle,  there  will  inevitably 
be  a  return  to  some  modification  of  the  old  belief.  The 

parallelism  holds  yet  further.  During  those  early  stages  in 
which  there  is  an  extreme  incongruity  between  the  relative- 
ly best  and  the  absolutely  best,  both  political  and  religious 
changes,  when  at  rare  intervals  they  occur,  are  necessarily 
violent;  and  necessarily  entail  violent  retrogressions.  But 
as  the  incongruity  between  that  which  is  and  that  which 
should  be,  diminishes,  the  changes  become  more  moderate, 
and  are  succeeded  by  more  moderate  retrogressions;  until, 
as  these  movements  and  counter-movements  decrease  in 
amount  and  increase  in  frequency,  they  merge  into  an  ah 
most  continuous  growth.  That  adhesion  to  old  institutions 
and  beliefs,  which,  in  primitive  societies,  opposes  an  iron 
barrier  to  any  advance,  and  which,  after  the  barrier  has  been 
at  length  burst  through,  brings  back  the  institutions  and  be- 
liefs from  that  too-forward  position  to  which  the  momentum 
of  change  had  carried  them,  and  so  helps  to  re-adapt  social 
conditions  to  the  popular  character — this  adhesion  to  old  in- 
stitution and  beliefs,  eventually  becomes  the  constant  check 
by  which  the  constant  advance  is  prevented  from  being  too 
rapid.  This  holds  true  of  religious  creeds  and  forms,  as  of 
civil  ones.  And  so  we  learn  that  theological  conservatism, 
like  political  conservatism,  has  an  ill-important  function. 

§  33.  That  spirit  of  toleration  which  is  so  marked  a 
characteristic  of  modern  times,  and  is  daily  growing  more 
conspicuous,  has  thus  a  far  deeper  meaning  than  is  supposed. 
What  we  commonly  regard  simply  as  a  due  respect  for  the 
right  of  private  judgment,  is  really' a  necessary  condition  to 
the  balancing  of  the  progressive  and  conservative  tendencies 
— is  a  means  of  maintaining  the  adaptation  between  men's 
beliefs  and  their  natures.  It  is  therefore  a  spirit  to  be  fos- 
tered;  and  it  is  a  spirit  which  the  catholic  thinker,  who  per- 


THE  RECONCILIATION.  123 

ceives  the  functions  of  these  various  conflicting  creeds, 
should    above    all    other    men    display.  Doubt- 

less whoever  feels  the  greatness  of  the  error  to  which 
his  fellows  cling  and  the  greatness  of  the  truth  which 
they  reject,  will  find  it  hard  to  show  a  due  patience. 
It  is  hard  for  him  to  listen  calmly  to  the  futile  argu- 
ments used  in  support  of  irrational  doctrines,  and  to 
the  misre}3resentation  of  antagonistic  doctrines.  It  is  hard 
for  him  to  bear  the  manifestation  of  that  pride  of  ignorance 
which  so  far  exceeds  the  pride  of  science.  Naturally  enough 
such  a  one  will  be  indignant  when  charged  with  irreligion 
because  he  declines  to  accept  the  carpenter-theory  of  crea- 
tion as  the  most  worthy  one.  He  may  think  it  needless  as  it 
is  difficult,  to  conceal  his  repugnance  to  a  creed  which  tacit- 
ly ascribes  to  The  Unknowable  a  love  of  adulation  such  as 
would  be  despised  in  a  human  being.  Convinced  as  he  is 
that  all  punishment,  as  we  see  it  wrought  out  in  the  order  of 
nature,  is  but  a  disguised  beneficence,  there  will  perhaps 
escape  from  him  an  angry  condemnation  of  the  belief  that 
punishment  is  a  divine  vengeance,  and  that  divine  ven- 
geance is  eternal.  He  may  be  tempted  to  show  his  con- 
tempt when  he  is  told  that  actions  instigated  by  an  unselfish 
sympathy  or  by  a  pure  love  of  rectitude,  are  intrinsically 
sinful;  and  that  conduct  is  truly  good  only  when  it  is  due 
to  a  faith  whose  openly-professed  motive  is  other-worldli- 
ness.  But  he  must  restrain  such  feelings.  Though  he  may 
be  unable  to  do  this  during  the  excitement  of  controversy, 
or  when  otherwise  brought  face  to  face  with  current  super- 
stitions, he  must  yet  qualify  his  antagonism  in  calmer  mo- 
ments; so  that  his  mature  judgment  and  resulting  conduct 
may  be  without  bias. 

To  this  en(J  let  him  ever  bear  in  mind  three  cardinal 
facts — two  of  them  already  dwelt  upon,  and  one  still  to  be 
pointed  out.  The  first  is  that  with  which  we  set  out ; 

namely  the  existence  of  a  fundamental  verity  under  all 
forms  of  religion,  however  degraded.     In  each  of  them 


124  THE  RECONCILIATION. 

there  is  a  soul  of  truth.  Through  the  gross  body  of  dogmas 
traditions  and  rites  which  contain  it,  it  is  always  visible — 
dimly  or  clearly  as  the  case  may  be.  This  it  is  which  gives 
vitality  even  to  the  rudest  creed;  this  it  is  which  survives 
every  modification;  and  this  it  is  which  we  must  not  forget 
when  condemning  the  forms  under  which  it  is  present- 
ed. The  second  of  these  cardinal  facts,  set  forth  at 
length  in  the  foregoing  section,  is,  that  while  those  concrete 
elements  in  which  each  creed  embodies  this  soul  of  truth, 
are  bad  as  measured  by  an  absolute  standard,  they  are  good 
as  measured  by  a  relative  standard.  Though  from  higher 
perceptions  they  hide  the  abstract  verity  within  them;  yet 
to  lower  perceptions  they  render  this  verity  more  appreciable 
than  it  would  otherwise  be.  They  serve  to  make  real  and  in- 
fluential over  men,  that  which  would  else  be  unreal  and  un- 
influential.  Or  we  may  call  them  the  protective  envelopes, 
without  which  the  contained  truth  would  die.  The 
remaining  cardinal  fact  is,  that  these  various  beliefs  are 
parts  of  the  constituted  order  of  things;  and  not  accidental 
but  necessary  parts.  Seeing  how  one  or  other  of  them  is 
everywhere  present ;  is  of  perennial  growth ;  and  when  cut 
down,  redevelopes  in  a  form  but  slightly  modified;  we 
cannot  avoid  the  inference  that  they  are  neeedful  accom- 
paniments of  human  life,  severally  fitted  to  the  societies  in 
which  they  are  indigenous.  From  the  highest  point  of 
view,  we  must  recognize  them  as  elements  in  that  great  evo- 
lution of  which  the  beginning  and  end  are  beyond  our 
knowledge  or  conception — as  modes  of  manifestation  of  The 
Unknowable ;  and  as  having  this  for  their  warrant. 

Our  toleration  therefore  should  be  the  widest  possible. 
Or  rather,  we  should  aim  at  something  beyond  toleration,  as 
commonly  understood.  In  dealing  with  alien  beliefs,  our 
endeavour  must  be,  not  simply  to  refrain  from  injustice  of 
word  or  deed;  but  also  to  do  justice  by  an  open  recognition 
of  positive  worth.  We  must  qualify  our  disagreement  with 
as  much  as  may  be  of  sympathy. 


THE  RECONCILIATION.  125 

§  34.  These  admissions  will  perhaps  be  held  to  imply, 
that  the  current  theology  should  be  passively  accepted;  or, 
at  any  rate,  should  not  be  actively  opposed.  "  Why,"  it 
may  be  asked,  "  if  all  creeds  have  an  average  fitness  to  their 
times  and  places,  should  we  not  rest  content  with  that  to 
which  we  are  born?  If  the  established  belief  contains  an 
essential  truth — if  the  forms  under  which  it  presents  this 
truth,  though  intrinsically  bad,  are  extrinsically  good — if 
the  abolition  of  these  forms  would  be  at  present  detrimental 
to  the  great  majority — nay,  if  there  are  scarcely  any  to 
whom  the  ultimate  and  most  abstract  belief  can  furnish  an 
adequate  rule  of  life;  surely  it  is  wrong,  for  the  present  at 
least,  to  propagate  this  ultimate  and  most  abstract  belief. " 

The  reply  is,  that  though  existing  religious  ideas  and  in- 
stitutions have  an  average  adaptation  to  the  characters  of  the 
people  who  live  under  them ;  yet,  as  these  characters  are  ever 
changing,  the  adaptation  is  ever  becoming  imperfect;  and 
the  ideas  and  institutions  need  remodelling  with  a  frequency 
proportionate  to  the  rapidity  of  the  change.  Hence,  while  it 
is  requisite  that  free  play  should  be  given  to  conservative 
thought  and  action,  progressive  thought  and  action  must 
also  have  free  play.  Without  the  agency  of  both,  there  can 
not  be  those  continual  re-adaptations  which  orderly  progress 
demands. 

Whoever  hesitates  to  utter  that  which  he  thinks  the 
highest  truth,  lest  it  should  be  too  much  in  advance  of  the 
time,  may  reassure  himself  by  looking  at  his  acts  from  an  im- 
personal point  of  view.  Let  him  duly  realize  the  fact  that 
opinion  is  the  agency  through  which  character  adapts  exter- 
nal arrangements  to  itself — that  his  opinion  rightly  forms 
part  of  this  agency — is  a  unit  of  force,  constituting,  with 
other  such  units,  the  general  power  which  works  out  social 
changes;  and  he  will  perceive  that  he  may  properly  give 
full  utterance  to  his  innermost  conviction :  leaving  it  to  pro- 
duce what  effect  it  may.  It  is  not  for  nothing  that  he  has  in 
him  these  sympathies  with  some  principles  and  repugnance 


126  THE  RECONCILIATION. 

to  others.  He,  with  all  his  capacities,  and  aspirations,  and 
beliefs,  is  not  an  accident,  but  a  product  of  the  time.  He 
must  remember  that  while  he  is  a  descendant  of  the  past, 
he  is -a  parent  of  the  future;  and  that  his  thoughts  are  as 
children  born  to  him,  which  he  may  not  carelessly  let  die. 
He,  like  every  other  man,  may  properly  consider  himself 
as  one  of  the  myriad  agencies  through  whom  works  the  Un- 
known Cause;  and  when  the  Unknown  Cause  produces  in 
him  a  certain  belief,  he  is  thereby  authorized  to  profess  and 
act  out  that  belief.  For,  to  render  in  their  highest  sense  the 
words  of  the  poet — 

Nature  is  made  better  by  no  mean, 

But  nature  makes  that  mean :  over  that  art 
Which  you  say  adds  to  nature,  is  an  art 
That  nature  makes. 

"Not  as  adventitious  therefore  will  the  wise  man  regard  the 
faith  which  is  in  him.  The  highest  truth  he  sees  he  will 
fearlessly  utter;  knowing  that,  let  what  may  come  of  it,  he 
is  thus  playing  his  right  part  in  the  world — knowing  that  if 
he  can  effect  the  change  he  aims  at — well:  if  not — well 
also;  though  not  so  well. 


PART    II 


THE    OOWABLE. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

PHILOSOPHY    DEFINED. 

§  35.  After  concluding  that  we  cannot  know  the  ulti- 
mate nature  of  that  which  is  manifested  to  us,  there  arise 
the  questions — What  is  it  that  we  know?  In  what  sense 
do  we  know  it  ?  And  in  what  consists  our  highest  knowledge 
of  it?  Having  repudiated  as  impossible  the  Philosophy 
which  professes  to  formulate  Being  as  distinguished  from 
Appearance,  it  becomes  needful  to  say  what  Philosophy 
truly  is — not  simply  to  specify  its  limits,  but  to  specify  its 
character  within  those  limits.  Given  a  certain  sphere  as  the 
sphere  to  which  human  intelligence  is  restricted,  and  there 
remains  to  define  the  peculiar  product  of  human  intelligence 
which  may  still  be  called  Philosophy. 

In  doing  this,  we  may  advantageously  avail  ourselves  of 
the  method  followed  at  the  outset,  of  separating  from  con- 
ceptions that  are  partially  or  mainly  erroneous,  the  element 
of  truth  they  contain.  As  in  the  chapter  on  "  Religion  and 
Science,'7  it  was  inferred  that  religious  beliefs,  wrong  as 
they  might  individually  be  in  their  particular  forms,  never- 
theless probably  each  contained  an  essential  verity,  and  that 
this  was  most  likely  common  to  them  all;  so  in  this  place  it 
is  to  be  inferred  that  past  and  present  beliefs  respecting  the 
nature  of  Philosophy,  are  none  of  them  wholly  false,  and 
that  that  in  which  they  are  true  is  that  in  which  they  agree. 
We  have  here,  then,  to  do  what  was  clone  there — "  to  com- 
pare all  opinions  of  the  same  genus ;  to  set  aside  as  more  or 

129 


130  PHILOSOPHY  DEFINED. 

less  discrediting  one  another  those  various  special  and  con- 
crete elements  in  which  such  opinions  disagree;  to  observe 
what  remains  after  the  discordant  constituents  have  been 
eliminated;  and  to  find  for  this  remaining  constituent  that 
abstract  expression  which  holds  true  throughout  its  diver- 
gent modifications." 

§  36.  Earlier  speculations  being  passed  over,  we  see 
that  among  the  Greeks,  before  there  had  arisen  any  notion 
of  Philosophy  in  general,  apart  from  particular  forms  of 
Philosophy,  the  particular  forms  of  it  from  which  the  gen- 
eral notion  was  to  arise,  were  hypotheses  respecting  some 
universal  principle  that  constituted  the  essence  of  all  con- 
crete kinds  of  being.  To  the  question — "  What  is  that  in- 
variable existence  of  which  these  are  variable  states  f  "  there 
were  sundry  answers — Water,  Air,  Fire.  A  class  of  hypo- 
theses of  this  all-embracing  character  having  been  pro- 
pounded, it  became  possible  for  Pythagoras  to  conceive  of 
Philosophy  in  the  abstract,  as  knowledge  the  most  remote 
from  practical  ends;  and  to  define  it  as  "  knowledge  of  im- 
material and  eternal  things:  "  "  the  cause  of  the  material 
existence  of  things,'7  being,  in  his  view,  Number.  There- 
after, we  find  continued  a  pursuit  of  Philosophy  as  some 
ultimate  interpretation  of  the  Universe,  assumed  to  be  pos- 
sible, whether  actually  reached  in  any  case  or  not.  And  in 
the  course  of  this  pursuit,  various  such  ultimate  interpreta- 
tions were  given  as  that  "  One  is  the  beginning  of  all 
things;  "  that  "  the  One  is  God;  "  that  "  the  One  is  Fi- 
nite; "  that  "  the  One  is  Infinite;  "  that  "  Intelligence  is  the 
governing  principle  of  things;  "  and  so  on.  From  all 
which  it  is  plain  that  the  knowledge  supposed  to  constitute 
Philosophy,  differed  from  other  knowledge  in  its  transcend- 
ent, exhaustive  character.  In  the  subsequent  course 
of  speculation,  after  the  Sceptics  had  shaken  men's  faith  in 
their  powers  of  reaching  such  transcendent  knowledge,  there 
grew  up  a  much-restricted  conception  of  Philosophy.     Un- 


PHILOSOPHY  DEFINED.  131 

cler  Socrates,  and  still  more  under  the  Stoics,  Philosophy  be- 
came little  else  than  the  doctrine  of  right  living.  Its  sub- 
ject-matter was  practically  cut  down  to  the  proper  ruling  of 
conduct,  public  and  private.  Not  indeed  that  the  proper 
ruling  of  conduct,  as  conceived  by  sundry  of  the  later  Greek 
thinkers  to  constitute  subject-matter  of  Philosophy,  an- 
swered to  what  was  popularly  understood  by  the  proper  rul- 
ing of  conduct.  The  injunctions  of  Zeno  were  not  of  the 
same  class  as  those  which  guided  men  from  early  times 
downwards,  in  their  daily  observances,  sacrifices,  customs, 
all  having  more  or  less  of  religious  sanction;  but  they  were 
principals  of  action  enunciated  without  reference  to  times, 
or  persons,  or  special  cases.  What,  then,  was  the  con- 

stant element  in  these  unlike  ideas  of  Philosophy  held  by  the 
ancients?  Clearly  the  character  in  which  this  last  idea 
agrees  with  the  first,  is  that  within  its  sphere  of  inquiry,  Phi- 
losophy seeks  for  wide  and  deep  truths,  as  distinguished 
from  the  multitudinous  detailed  truths  which  the  surfaces 
of  things  and  actions  present. 

By  comparing  the  conceptions  of  Philosophy  that  have 
been  current  in  modern  times,  we  get  a  like  result.  The 
disciples  of  Schelling,  Fichte,  and  their  kindred,  join  the 
Hegelian  in  ridiculing  the  so-called  Philosophy  which  has 
usurped  the  title  in  England.  Not  without  reason,  they 
laugh  on  reading  of  "  Philosophical  instruments;  "  and 
would  deny  that  any  one  of  the  papers  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions  has  the  least  claim  to  come  under  such  a  title. 
Retaliating  on  their  critics,  the  English  may,  and  most  of 
them  do,  reject  as  absurd  the  imagined  Philosophy  of  the 
German  schools.  As  consciousness  cannot  be  transcended, 
they  hold  that  whether  consciousness  does  or  does  not  vouch 
for  the  existence  of  something  beyond  itself,  it  at  any  rate 
cannot  comprehend  that  something;  and  that  hence,  in  so 
far  as  any  Philosophy  professes  to  be  an  Ontology,  it  is  false. 
These  two  views  cancel  one  another  over  large  parts  of  their 
areas.    The  English  criticism  on  the  Germans,  cuts  oif  from 


132  PHILOSOPHY  DEFINED. 

Philosophy  all  that  is  regarded  as  absolute  knowledge. 
The  German  criticism  on  the  English  tacitly  implies  that  if 
Philosophy  is  limited  to  the  relative,  it  is  at  any  rate  not 
concerned  with  those  aspects  of  the  relative  which  are  em- 
bodied in  mathematical  formulae,  in  accounts  of  physical 
researches,  in  chemical  analyses,  or  in  descriptions  of  species 
and   reports    of   physiological    experiments.  Xow 

what  has  the  too-wide  German  conception  in  common  with 
the  conception  general  among  English  men  of  science; 
which,  narrow  and  crude  as  it  is,  is  not  so  narrow  and  crude 
as  their  misuse  of  the  word  philosophical  indicates?  The 
two  have  this  in  common,  that  neither  Germans  nor  English 
apply  the  word  to  unsystematized  knowledge — to  knowledge 
quite  uncoordinated  with  other  knowledge.  Even  the  most 
limited  specialists  would  not  describe  as  philosophical,  an 
essay  which,  dealing  wholly  with  details,  manifested  no  per- 
ception of  the  bearings  of  those  details  on  wider  truths. 

The  vague  idea  thus  raised  of  that  in  which  the  various 
conceptions  of  Philosophy  agree,  may  be  rendered  more 
definite  by  comparing  what  has  been  known  in  England  as 
Natural  Philosophy  with  that  development  of  it  called  Posi- 
tive Philosophy.  Though,  as  M.  Comte  admits,  the  two 
consist  of  knowledge  essentially  the  same  in  kind;  yet,  by 
having  put  this  kind  of  knowledge  into  a  more  coherent 
form,  he  has  given  it  more  of  that  character  to  which  the 
term  philosophical  is  applied.  Without  expressing  any 
opinion  respecting  the  truth  of  his  co-ordination,  it  must  be 
conceded  that  by  the  fact  of  its  co-ordination,  the  body  of 
knowledge  organized  by  him  has  a  better  claim  to  the  title 
Philosophy,  than  has  the  comparatively-unorganized  body 
of  knowledge  named  Natural  Philosophy. 

If  subdivisions  of  Philosophy,  or  more  special  forms  of 
it,  be  contrasted  with  one  another,  or  with  the  whole,  the 
same  implication  comes  out.  Moral  Philosophy  and  Politi- 
cal Philosophy,  agree  with  Philosophy  at  large  in  the  com- 
prehensiveness of  their  reasonings  and  conclusions.   Though 


PHILOSOPHY   DEFINED.  133 

under  the  head  of  Moral  Philosophy,  we  treat  of  human  ac- 
tions as  right  or  wrong,  we  do  not  include  special  directions 
for  behaviour  in  the  nursery,  at  table,  or  on  the  exchange; 
and  though  Political  Philosophy  has  for  its  topic  the  con- 
duct of  men  in  their  public  relations,  it  does  not  concern  it- 
self with  modes  of  voting  or  details  of  administration.  Both 
of  these  sections  of  Philosophy  contemplate  particular  in- 
stances, only  as  illustrating  truths  of  wide  application. 

§  37.  Thus  every  one  of  these  conceptions  implies  the 
belief  in  a  possible  way  of  knowing  things  more  completely 
than  they  are  known  through  simple  experiences,  mechani- 
cally accumulated  in  memory  or  heaped  up  in  cyclopaedias. 
Though  in  the  extent  of  the  sphere  which  they  have  sup- 
posed Philosophy  to  fill,  men  have  differed  and  still  differ 
very  widely;  yet  there  is  a  real  if  unavowed  agreement 
among  them  in  signifying  by  this  title  a  knowledge  which 
transcends  ordinary  knowledge.  That  which  remains  as  the 
common  element  in  these  conceptions  of  Philosophy,  after 
the  elimination  of  their  discordant  elements,  is — knowledge 
of  the  highest  degree  of  generality.  We  see  this  tacitly 
asserted  by  the  simultaneous  inclusion  of  God,  Nature,  and 
Man,  within  its  scope;  or  still  more  distinctly  by  the  divi- 
sion of  Philosophy  as  a  whole  into  Theological,  Physical, 
Ethical,  &c.  For  that  which  characterizes  the  genus  of 
which  these  are  species,  must  be  something  more  general 
than  that  which  distinguishes  any  one  species. 

What  must  be  the  specific  shape  here  given  to  this  con- 
ception? The  range  of  intelligence  we  find  to  be  limited  to 
the  relative.  Though  persistently  conscious  of  a  Power 
manifested  to  us,  we  have  abandoned  as  futile  the  attempt 
to  learn  anything  respecting  the  nature  of  that  Power ;  and 
so  have  shut  out  Philosophy  from  much  of  the  domain  sup- 
posed to  belong  to  it.  The  domain  left  is  that  occupied  by 
Science.  Science  concerns  itself  with  the  co-existences  and 
sequences  among  phenomena;  grouping  these  at  first  into 


134  PHILOSOPHY  DEFINED. 

generalizations  of  a  simple  or  low  order,  and  rising  gradual- 
ly to  higher  and  more  extended  generalizations.  But  if  so, 
where  remains  any  subject-matter  for  Philosophy? 

The  reply  is — Philosophy  may  still  properly  be  the  title 
retained  for  knowledge  of  the  highest  generality.  Science 
means  merely  the  family  of  the  Sciences — stands  for  noth- 
ing more  than  the  sum  of  knowledge  formed  of  their  con- 
tributions; and  ignores  the  knowledge  constituted  by  the 
fu&ionoi  all  these  contributions  into  a  whole.  As  usage  has 
defined  it,  Science  consists  of  truths  existing  more  or  less 
separated;  and  does  not  recognize  these  truths  as  entirely 
integrated.    An  illustration  will  make  the  difference  clear. 

If  we  ascribe  the  flow  of  a  river  to  the  same  force  which 
causes  the  fall  of  a  stone,  we  make  a  statement,  true  as  far 
as  it  goes,  that  belongs  to  a  certain  division  of  Science.  If, 
in  further  explanation  of  a  movement  produced  by  gravita- 
tion in  a  direction  almost  horizontal,  we  cite  the  law  that 
fluids  subject  to  mechanical  forces  exert  re-active  forces 
which  are  equal  in  all  directions,  we  formulate  a  wider 
fact,  containing  the  scientific  interpretation  of  many  other 
phenomena;  as  those  presented  by  the  fountain,  the  hy- 
draulic press,  the  steam-engine,  the  air-pump.  And  when 
this  proposition,  extending  only  to  the  dynamics  of  fluids, 
is  merged  in  a  proposition  of  general  dynamics,  compre- 
hending the  laws  of  movement  of  solids  as  well  as  of  fluids, 
there  is  reached  a  yet  higher  truth;  but  still  a  truth  that 
comes  wholly  within  the  realm  of  Science.  Again, 

looking  around  at  Birds  and  Mammals,  suppose  we  say  that 
air-breathing  animals  are  hot-blooded;  and  that  then,  re- 
membering how  Reptiles,  which  also  breathe  air,  are  not 
much  warmer  than  their  media,  we  say,  more  truly,  that  ani- 
mals (bulks  being  equal)  have  temperatures  proportionate  to 
the  quantities  of  air  they  breathe ;  and  that  then,  calling  to 
mind  certain  large  fish  which  maintain  a  heat  considerably 
above  that  of  the  water  they  swim  in,  we  further  correct 
the  generalization  by  saying  that  the  temperature  varies  as 


PHILOSOPHY  DEFINED.  135 

the  rate  of  oxygenation  of  the  blood ;  and  that  then,  modify- 
ing the  statement  to  meet  other  criticisms,  we  finally  assert 
the  relation  to  be  between  the  amount  of  heat  and  the 
amount  of  molecular  change — supposing  we  do  all  this,  we 
state  scientific  truths  that  are  successively  wider  and  more 
complete,  but  truths  which,  to  the  last,  remain  purely  scien- 
tific. Once  more  if,  guided  by  mercantile  ex- 
periences, we  reach  the  conclusion  that  prices  rise  when  the 
demand  exceeds  the  supply;  and  that  commodities  flow 
from  places  where  they  are  abundant  to  places  where  they 
are  scarce ;  and  that  the  industries  of  different  localities  are 
determined  in  their  kinds  mainly  by  the  facilities  which  the 
localities  afford  for  them ;  and  if,  studying  these  generaliza- 
tions of  political  economy,  we  trace  them  all  to  the  truth 
that  each  man  seeks  satisfaction  for  his  desires  in  ways  cost- 
ing the  smallest  efforts — such  social  phenomena  being  re- 
sultants of  individual  actions  so  guided;  we  are  still  dealing 
with  the  propositions  of  Science  only. 

And  now  how  is  Philosophy  constituted?  It  is  consti- 
tuted by  carrying  a  stage  further  the  process  indicated.  So 
long  as  these  truths  are  known  only  apart  and  regarded  as 
independent,  even  the  most  general  of  them  cannot  without 
laxity  of  speech  be  called  philosophical.  But  when,  having 
been  severally  reduced  to  a  simple  mechanical  axiom,  a 
principle  of  molecular  physics,  and  a  law  of  social  action, 
they  are  contemplated  together  as  corollaries  of  some  ulti- 
mate truth,  then  we  rise  to  the  kind  of  knowledge  that  con- 
stitutes Philosophy  proper. 

The  truths  of  Philosophy  thus  bear  the  same  relation  to 
the  highest  scientific  truths,  that  each  of  these  bears  to 
lower  scientific  truths.  As  each  widest  generalization  of 
Science  comprehends  and  consolidates  the  narrower  gener- 
alizations of  its  own  division;  so  the  generalizations  of 
Philosophy  comprehend  and  consolidate  the  widest  gener- 
alizations of  Science.  It  is  therefore  a  knowledge  the  ex- 
treme opposite  in  kind  to  that  which  experience  first  accu- 


136  PHILOSOPHY  DEFINED. 

mnlates.  It  is  the  final  product  of  that  process  which  begins 
with  a  mere  colligation  of  crude  observations,  goes  on  estab- 
lishing propositions  that  are  broader  and  more  separated 
from  particular  cases,  and  ends  in  universal  propositions. 
Or  to  bring  the  definition  to  its  simplest  and  clearest  form: 
— Knowledge  of  the  lowest  kind  is  un-unified  knowledge; 
Science  is  partially -unified  knowledge ;  Philosophy  is  com- 
pletely-unified knowledge. 

§  38.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  meaning  we  must  here  give  to 
the  word  Philosophy,  if  we  employ  it  at  all.  In  so  defining 
it,  we  accept  that  which  is  common  to  the  various  concep- 
tions of  it  current  among  both  ancients  and  moderns — re- 
jecting those  elements  in  which  these  conceptions  disagree, 
or  exceed  the  possible  range  of  intelligence.  In  short,  we 
are  simply  giving  precision  to  that  application  of  the  word 
which  is  gradually  establishing  itself. 

Two  forms  of  Philosophy,  as  thus  understood,  may  be 
distinguished  and  dealt  with  separately.  On  the  one  hand, 
the  things  contemplated  may  be  the  universal  truths:  all 
particular  truths  referred  to  being  used  simply  for  proof  or 
elucidation  of  these  universal  truths.  On  the  other  hand, 
setting  out  with  the  universal  truths  as  granted,  the  things 
contemplated  may  be  the  particular  truths  as  interpreted  by 
them.  In  both  cases  we  deal  with  the  universal  truths; 
but  in  the  one  case  they  are  passive  and  in  the  other  case 
active — in  the  one  case  they  form  the  products  of  explora- 
tion and  in  the  other  case  the  instruments  of  exploration. 
These  divisions  we  may  appropriately  call  General  Philoso- 
phy and  Special  Philosophy  respectively. 

The  remainder  of  this  volume  will  be  devoted  to  General 
Philosophy.  Special  Philosophy,  divided  into  parts  deter- 
mined by  the  natures  of  the  phenomena  treated,  will  be  the 
subject-matter  of  subsequent  volumes. 


CHAPTEE  II. 

THE    DATA    OF    PHILOSOPHY. 

§  39.  Every  thought  involves  a  whole  system  of 
thoughts;  and  ceases  to  exist  if  severed  from  its  various  cor- 
relatives. As  we  cannot  isolate  a  single  organ  of  a  living 
body,  and  deal  with  it  as  though  it  had  a  life  independent  of 
the  rest;  so,  from  the  organized  structure  of  our  cognitions, 
we  cannot  cut  out  one,  and  proceed  as  though  it  had  sur- 
vived the  separation.  The  development  of  formless  proto- 
plasm into  an  embryo,  is  a  specialization  of  parts,  the  dis- 
tinctness of  which  increases  only  as  fast  as  their  combination 
increases — each  becomes  a  distinguishable  organ  only  on 
condition  that  it  is  bound  up  with  others,  which  have  simul- 
taneously become  distinguishable  organs;  and,  similarly, 
from  the  unformed  material  of  consciousness,  a  developed 
intelligence  can  arise  only  by  a  process  which,  in  making 
thoughts  defined  also  makes  them  mutually  dependent — 
establishes  among  them  certain  vital  connections  the  de- 
struction of  which  causes  instant  death  of  the  thoughts. 
Overlooking  this  all-important  truth,  however,  speculators 
have  habitually  set  out  with  some  professedly-simple  datum 
or  data;  have  supposed  themselves  to  assume  nothing  be- 
yond this  datum  or  these  data;  and  have  thereupon  pro- 
ceeded to  prove  or  disprove  propositions  which  were,  by  im- 
plication, already  unconsciously  asserted  along  with  that 
which  was  consciously  asserted. 

This  reasoning  in  a  circle  has  resulted  from  the  misuse  of 
11  137 


138  THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

words:  not  that  misuse  commonly  enlarged  upon — not  the 
misapplication  or  change  of  meaning  whence  so  much  error 
arises;  but  a  more  radical  and  less  obvious  misuse.  Only 
that  thought  which  is  directly  indicated  by  each  word  has 
been  contemplated;  while  numerous  thoughts  indirectly 
indicated  have  been  left  out  of  consideration.  Because  a 
spoken  or  written  word  can  be  detached  from  all  others,  it 
has  been  inadvertently  assumed  that  the  thing  signified  by 
a  word  can  be  detached  from  the  things  signified  by  all 
other  words.  Though  more-deeply  hidden,  the  mistake  is 
of  the  same  order  as  that  made  by  the  Greeks,  who  were 
continually  led  astray  by  the  belief  in  some  community  of 
nature  between  the  symbol  and  that  which  it  symbolized. 
For  though  here  community  of  nature  is  not  assumed  to  the 
same  extent  as  of  old,  it  is  assumed  to  this  extent,  that 
because  the  symbol  is  separable  from  all  other  symbols,  and 
can  be  contemplated  as  having  an  independent  existence, 
so  the  thought  symbolized  may  be  thus  separated  and  thus 
contemplated.  How  profoundly  this  error  vitiates 

the  conclusions  of  one  who  makes  it,  we  shall  quickly  see  on 
taking  a  case.  The  sceptical  metaphysician,  wishing  his 
reasonings  to  be  as  rigorous  as  possible,  says  to  himself — 
"  I  will  take  for  granted  only  this  one  thing."  What  now 
are  the  tacit  assumptions  inseparable  from  his  avowed  as- 
sumption ?  The  resolve  itself  indirectly  asserts  that  there  is 
some  other  thing,  or  are  some  other  things,  which  he  might 
assume ;  for  it  is  impossible  to  think  of  unity  without  think- 
ing of  a  correlative  duality  or  multiplicity.  In  the  very  act, 
therefore,  of  restricting  himself,  he  takes  in  much  that  is 
professedly  left  out.  Again,  before  proceeding  he  must  give 
a  definition  of  that  which  he  assumes.  Is  nothing  unex- 
pressed involved  in  the  thought  of  a  thing  as  defined? 
There  is  the  thought  of  something  excluded  by  the  definition 
— there  is,  as  before,  the  thought  of  other  existence.  But 
there  is  much  more.  Defining  a  thing,  or  setting  a  limit  to 
it,  implies  the  thought  of  a  limit;  and  limit  cannot  be 


THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY.  139 

thought  of  apart  from  some  notion  of  quantity — extensive, 
protensive,  or  intensive.  Further,  definition  is  impossible 
unless  there  enters  into  it  the  thought  of  difference;  and 
difference,  besides  being  unthinkable  without  having  two 
things  that  differ,  implies  the  existence  of  other  differences 
than  the  one  recognized;  since  otherwise  there  can  be  no 
general  conception  of  difference.  Nor  is  this  all.  As  before 
pointed  out  (§  24)  all  thought  involves  the  consciousness  of 
likeness:  the  one  thing  avowedly  postulated  cannot  be 
known  absolutely  as  one  thing,  but  can  be  known  only  as  of 
such  or  such  kind — only  as  classed  with  other  things  in 
virtue  of  some  common  attribute.  Thus  along  with  the 
single  avowed  datum,  we  have  surreptitiously  brought  in  a 
number  of  una  vowed  data — existence  other  than  that  alleged, 
quantity,  number,  limit,  difference,  likeness,  class,  attribute. 
Saying  nothing  of  the  many  more  which  an  exhaustive 
analysis  would  disclose,  we  have  in  these  unacknowledged 
postulates,  the  outlines  of  a  general  theory ;  and  that  theory 
can  be  neither  proved  nor  disproved  by  the  metaphysician's 
argument.  Insist  that  his  symbol  shall  be  interpreted  at 
every  step  into  its  full  meaning,  with  all  the  complementary 
thoughts  implied  by  that  meaning,  and  you  find  already 
taken  for  granted  in  the  premises  that  which  in  the  conclu- 
sion is  asserted  or  denied. 

In  what  way,  then,  must  Philosophy  set  out?  The 
developed  intelligence  is  framed  upon  certain  organized 
and  consolidated  conceptions  of  which  it  cannot  divest 
itself;  and  which  it  can  no  more  stir  without  using  than 
the  body  can  stir  without  help  of  its  limbs.  In  what  way, 
then,  is  it  possible  for  intelligence,  striving  after  Philoso- 
phy, to  give  any  account  of  these  conceptions,  and  to  show 
either  their  validity  or  their  invalidity?  There  is  but  one 
way.  Those  of  them  which  are  vital,  or  cannot  be  severed 
from  the  rest  without  mental  dissolution,  must  be  assumed 
as  true  provisionally.  The  fundamental  intuitions  that  are 
essential  to  the  process  of  thinking,  must  be  temporarily 


140  THE  DATA  0F  PHILOSOPHY. 

accepted   as   unquestionable:  leaving   the    assumption    of 
their  unquestionableness  to  be  justified  by  the  results. 

§  40.  How  is  it  to  be  justified  by  the  results?  As  any 
other  assumption  is  justified — by  ascertaining  that  all  the 
conclusions  deducible  from  it,  correspond  with  the  facts  as 
directly  observed — by  showing  the  agreement  between  the 
experiences  it  leads  us  to  anticipate,  and  the  actual  ex- 
periences. There  is  no  mode  of  establishing  the  validity  of 
any  belief,  except  that  of  showing  its  entire  cpngruity  with 
all  other  beliefs.  If  we  suppose  that  a  mass  which  has  a 
certain  colour  and  lustre  is  the  substance  called  gold,  how 
do  we  proceed  to  prove  the  hypothesis  that  it  is  gold?  We 
represent  to  ourselves  certain  other  impressions  which  gold 
produces  on  us,  and  then  observe  whether,  under  the  appro- 
priate conditions,  this  particular  mass  produces  on  us  such 
impressions.  We  remember,  as  we  say,  that  gold  has  a  high 
specific  gravity;  and  if,  on  poising  this  substance  on  the 
finger,  we  find  that  its  weight  is  great  considering  its  bulk, 
we  take  the  correspondence  between  the  represented  im- 
pression and  the  presented  impression  as  further  evidence 
that  the  substance  is  gold.  In  response  to  a  demand  for 
more  proof,  we  compare  certain  other  ideal  and  real  effects. 
Knowing  that  gold,  unlike  most  metals,  is  insoluble  in 
nitric  acid,  we  imagine  to  ourselves  a  drop  of  nitric  acid 
placed  on  the  surface  of  this  yellow,  glittering,  heavy  sub- 
stance, without  causing  corrosion;  and  when,  after  so  plac- 
ing a  drop  of  nitric  acid,  no  effervescence  or  other  change 
follows,  we  hold  this  agreement  between  the  anticipation 
and  the  experience  to  be  an  additional  reason  for  thinking 
that  the  substance  is  gold.  And  if,  similarly,  the  great 
malleability  possessed  by  gold  we  find  to  be  paralleled  by 
the  great  malleability  of  this  substance;  if,  like  gold,  it 
fuses  at  about  2,000  deg. ;  crystallizes  in  octahedrons;  is  dis- 
solved by  selenic  acid;  and,  under  all  conditions,  does  what 
gold  does  under  such  conditions;  the  conviction  that  it  is 


THE   DATA   OF  PHILOSOPHY.  141 

gold  readies  what  we  regard  as  the  highest  certainty — we 
know  it  to  be  gold  in  the  fullest  sense  of  knowing.  For, 
as  we  here  see,  our  whole  knowledge  of  gold  consists  in 
nothing  more  than  the  consciousness  of  a  definite  set  of  im- 
pressions, standing  in  definite  relations,  disclosed  under 
definite  conditions;  and  if,  in  a  present  experience,  the 
impressions,  relations,  and  conditions,  perfectly  correspond 
with  those  in  past  experiences,  the  cognition  has  all  the 
validity  of  which  it  is  capable.  So  that,  generalizing  the 
statement,  hypotheses,  down  even  to  those  simple  ones 
which  we  make  from  moment  to  moment  in  our  acts  of  re- 
cognition, are  verified  when  entire  congruity  is  found  to 
exist  between  the  states  of  consciousness  constituting  them, 
and  certain  other  states  of  consciousness  given  in  percep- 
tion, or  reflection,  or  both;  and  no  other  knowledge  is  pos- 
sible for  us  than  that  which  consists  of  the  consciousness  of 
such  congruities  and  their  correlative  incongruities. 

Hence  Philosophy,  compelled  to  make  those  fundamen- 
tal assumptions  without  which  thought  is  impossible,  has  to 
justify  them  by  showing  their  congruity  with  all  other  dicta 
of  consciousness.  Debarred  as  we  are  from  everything 
beyond  the  relative,  truth,  raised  to  its  highest  form,  can  be 
for  us  nothing  more  than  perfect  agreement,  throughout  the 
whole  range  of  our  experience,  between  those  representa- 
tions of  things  which  we  distinguish  as  ideal  and  those  pre- 
sentations of  things  which  we  distinguish  as  real.  If,  by 
discovering  a  proposition  to  be  untrue,  we  mean  nothing 
more  than  discovering  a  difference  between  a  thing  ex- 
pected and  a  thing  perceived;  then  a  body  of  conclusions 
in  which  no  such  difference  anywhere  occurs,  must  be  what 
we  mean  by  an  entirely  true  body  of  conclusions. 

And  here,  indeed,  it  becomes  also  obvious  that,  setting 
out  with  these  fundamental  intuitions  provisionally  assumed 
to  be  true — that  is,  provisionally  assumed  to  be  congruous 
with  all  other  dicta  of  consciousness — the  process  of  proving 
or  disproving  the  congruity  becomes  the  business  of  Philoso- 


142  THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

phy;  and  the  complete  establishment  of  the  congruity  be- 
comes the  same  thing  as  the  complete  unification  of  knowl- 
edge in  which  Philosophy  reaches  its  goal. 

.§  41.  What  is  this  datum,  or  rather,  what  are  these  data, 
which  Philosophy  cannot  do  without?  Clearly  one  pri- 
mordial datum  is  involved  in  the  foregoing  statement. 
Already  by  implication  we  have  assumed,  and  must  for  ever 
continue  to  assume,  that  congruities  and  incongruities 
exist,  and  are  cognizable  by  us.  We  cannot  avoid  accept- 
ing as  true  the  verdict  of  consciousness  that  some  mani- 
festations are  like  one  another  and  some  are  unlike  one 
another.  Unless  consciousness  be  a  competent  judge  of  the 
likeness  and  unlikeness  of  its  states,  there  can  never  be 
established  that "  congruity  throughout  the  whole  of  our 
cognitions  which  constitutes  Philosophy ;  nor  can  there  ever 
be  established  that  incongruity  by  which  only  any  hypo- 
thesis, philosophical  or  other,  can  be  shown  erroneous. 

The  impossibility  of  moving  towards  either  conviction  or 
scepticism  without  postulating  thus  much,  we  shall  see  even 
more  vividly  on  observing  how  every  step  in  reasoning  pos- 
tulates thus  much,  over  and  over  again.  To  say  that  all 
things  of  a  certain  class  are  characterized  by  a  certain  attri- 
bute, is  to  say  that  all  things  known  as  like  in  those  various 
attributes  connoted  by  their  common  name,  are  also  like  in 
having  the  particular  attribute  specified.  To  say  that  some 
object  of  immediate  attention  belongs  to  this  class,  is  to  say 
that  it  is  like  all  the  others  in  the  various  attributes  con- 
noted by  their  common  name.  To  say  that  this  object  pos- 
sesses the  particular  attribute  specified,  is  to  say  that  it  is 
like  the  others  in  this  respect  also.  While,  contrariwise,  the 
assertion  that  the  attribute  thus  inferred  to  be  possessed  by 
it,  is  not  possessed,  implies  the  assertion  that  in  place  of  one 
of  the  alleged  likenesses  there  exists  an  unlikeness .  Neither 
affirmation  nor  denial,  therefore,  of  any  deliverance  of  rea- 
son, or  any  element  of  such  deliverance,  is  possible  without 


THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY.  143 

accepting  the  dictum  of  consciousness  that  certain  of  its 
states  are  like  or  unlike.  Whence,  besides  seeing  that  the 
unified  knowledge  constituting  a  completed  Philosophy,  is 
a  knowledge  composed  of  parts  that  are  universally  congru- 
ous ;  and  besides  seeing  that  it  is  the  business  of  Philosophy 
to  establish  their  universal  congruity ;  we  also  see  that  every 
act  of  the  process  by  which  this  universal  congruity  is  to  be 
established,  down  even  to  the  components  of  every  inference 
and  every  observation,  consists  in  the  establishment  of  con- 
gruity. 

Consequently,  the  assumption  that  a  congruity  or  an  in- 
congruity exists  when  consciousness  testifies  to  it,  is  an  in- 
evitable assumption.  It  is  useless  to  say,  as  Sir  W.  Hamil- 
ton does,  that  "  consciousness  is  to  be  presumed  trustworthy 
until  proved  mendacious."  It  cannot  be  proved  mendacious 
in  this,  its  primordial  act ;  since,  as  we  see,  proof  involves  a 
repeated  acceptance  of  this  primordial  act.  Nay  more,  the 
very  thing  supposed  to  be  proved  cannot  be  expressed  with- 
out recognizing  this  primordial  act  as  valid ;  since  unless  we 
accept  the  verdict  of  consciousness  that  they  differ,  menda- 
city and  trustworthiness  become  identical.  Process  and 
product  of  reasoning  both  disappear  in  the  absence  of  this 
assumption. 

It  may,  indeed,  be  often  shown  that  what,  after  careless 
comparison,  were  supposed  to  be  like  states  of  consciousness,* 
are  really  unlike;  or  that  what  were  carelessly  supposed  to 
be  unlike,  are  really  like.  But  how  is  this  shown  ?  Simply 
by  a  more  careful  comparison,  mediately  or  immediately 
made.  And  what  does  acceptance  of  the  revised  conclusion 
imply  ?  Simply  that  a  deliberate  verdict  of  consciousness  is 
preferable  to  a  rash  one ;  or,  to  speak  more  definitely — that 
a  consciousness  of  likeness  or  difference  which  survives 
critical  examination  must  be  accepted  in  place  of  one  that 
does  not  survive — the  very  survival  being  itself  the  accept- 
ance. 

And  here  we  get  to  the  bottom  of  the  matter.     The 


144  THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

permanence  of  a  consciousness  of  likeness  or  difference, 
is  our  ultimate  warrant  for  asserting  the  existence  of  like- 
ness or  difference ;  and,  in  fact,  we  mean  by  the  existence  of 
likeness  or  difference,  nothing  more  than  the  permanent 
consciousness  of  it.  To  say  that  a  given  congruity  or  incon- 
gruity exists,  is  simply  our  way  of  saying  that  we  invariably 
have  a  consciousness  of  it  along  with  a  consciousness  of  the 
compared  things.  We  know  nothing  more  of  existence  than 
a  continued  manifestation. 

§  42.  But  Philosophy  requires  for  its  datum  some  sub- 
stantive proposition.  To  recognize  as  unquestionable  a  cer- 
tain fundamental  process  of  thought,  is  not  enough:  we 
must  recognize  as  unquestionable  some  fundamental  prod- 
uct of  thought,  reached  by  this  process.  If  Philosophy  is 
completely-unified  knowledge — if  the  unification  of  knowl- 
edge is  to  be  effected  only  by  showing  that  some  ultimate 
proposition  includes  and  consolidates  all  the  results  of  expe- 
rience ;  then,  clearly,  this  ultimate  proposition  which  has  to 
be  proved  congruous  with  all  others,  must  express  a  piece  of 
knowledge,  and  not  the  validity  of  an  act  of  knowing. 
Having  assumed  the  trustworthiness  of  consciousness,  we 
have  also  to  assume  as  trustworthy  some  deliverance  of  con- 
sciousness. 

What  must  this  be?  Must  it  not  be  one  affirming  the 
widest  and  most  profound  distinction  which  things  present  ? 
Must  it  not  be  a  statement  of  congruities  and  incongruities 
more  general  than  any  other?  An  ultimate  principle  that 
is  to  unify  all  experience,  must  be  co-extensive  with  all  ex- 
perience— cannot  be  concerned  with  experience  of  one  order 
or  several  orders,  but  must  be  concerned  with  universal  ex- 
perience. That  which  Philosophy  takes  as  its  datum,  must 
be  an  assertion  of  some  likeness  and  difference  to  which 
all  other  likenesses  and  differences  are  secondary.  If  know- 
ing is  classifying,  or  grouping  the  like  and  separating  the 
unlike;  and  if  the  unification  of  knowledge  proceeds  by 


THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY.  145 

arranging  the  smaller  classes  of  like  experiences  within  the 
larger,  and  these  within  the  still  larger;  then,  the  proposi- 
tion by  which  knowledge  is  unified,  must  be  one  specifying 
the  antithesis  between  two  ultimate  classes  of  experiences,  in 
which  all  others  merge. 

Let  us  now  consider  what  these  classes  are.  In  drawing 
the  distinction  between  them,  we  cannot  avoid  using  words 
that  have  indirect  implications  wider  than  their  direct  mean- 
ings— we  cannot  avoid  arousing  thoughts  that  imply  the 
very  distinction  which  it  is  the  object  of  the  analysis  to 
establish.  Keeping  this  fact  in  mind,  we  can  do  no  more 
than  ignore  the  connotations  of  the  words,  and  attend  only 
to  the  things  they  avowedly  denote. 

§  43.  Setting  out  from  the  conclusion  lately  reached, 
that  all  things  known  to  us  are  manifestations  of  the  Un- 
knowable; and  suppressing,  so  far  as  we  may,  every  hypo- 
thesis respecting  the  something  which  underlies  one  or  other 
order  of  these  manifestations;  we  find  that  the  manifesta- 
tions, considered  simply  as  such,  are  divisible  into  two  great 
classes,  called  by  some  impressions  and  ideas.  The  implica- 
tions of  these  words  are  apt  to  vitiate  the  reasonings  of  those 
who  use  the  words;  and  though  it  may  be  possible  to  use 
them  only  with  reference  to  the  differential  characteristics 
they  are  meant  to  indicate,  it  is  best  to  avoid  the  risk  of 
making  unacknowledged  assumptions.  The  term  sensation, 
too,  commonly  used  as  the  equivalent  of  impression,  implies 
certain  psychological  theories — tacitly,  if  not  openly,  postu- 
lates a  sensitive  organism  and  something  acting  upon  it; 
and  can  scarcely  be  employed  without  bringing  these  postu- 
lates into  the  thoughts  and  embodying  them  in  the  in- 
ferences. Similarly,  the  phrase  state  of  consciousness,  as 
signifying  either  an  impression  or  an  idea,  is  objectionable. 
As  we  cannot  think  of  a  state  without  thinking  of  something 
of  which  it  is  a  state,  and  which  is  capable  of  different 
states,  there  is  involved  a  foregone  conclusion — an  unde- 


1^6  THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

veloped  system  of  metaphysics.  Here,  accepting  the  in- 
evitable  implication  that  the  manifestations  imply  some- 
thing manifested,  our  aim  must  be  to  avoid  any  further 
implications.  Though  we  cannot  exclude  further  implica- 
tions from  our  thoughts,  and  cannot  carry  on  our  argument 
without  tacit  recognitions  of  them,  we  can  at  any  rate  refuse 
to  recognize  them  in  the  terms  with  which  we  set  out.  We 
may  do  this  most  effectually  by  classing  the  manifestations 
as  vivid  and  faint  respectively.  Let  us  consider  what  are 
the  several  distinctions  that  exist  between  these. 

And  first  a  few  words  on  this  most  conspicuous  distinc- 
tion which  these  antithetical  names  imply.  Manifestations 
that  occur  under  the  conditions  called  those  of  perception 
(and  the  conditions  so  called  we  must  here,  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, separate  from  all  hypotheses,  and  regard  simply  as 
themselves  a  certain  group  of  manifestations)  are  ordinarily 
far  more  distinct  than  those  which  occur  under  the  condi- 
tions known  as  those  of  reflection,  or  memory,  or  imagina- 
tion, or  ideation.  These  vivid  manifestations  do,  indeed, 
sometimes  differ  but  little  from  the  faint  ones.  When  near- 
ly dark  we  may  be  unable  to  decide  whether  a  certain  mani- 
festation belongs  to  the  vivid  order  or  the  faint  order — 
whether,  as  we  say,  we  really  see  something  or  fancy  we 
see  it.  In  like  manner,  between  a  very  feeble  sound  and  the 
imagination  of  a  sound,  it  is  occasionally  difficult  to  discrimi- 
nate. But  these  exceptional  cases  are  extremely  rare  in 
comparison  with  the  enormous  mass  of  cases  in  which,  from 
instant  to  instant,  the  vivid  manifestations  distinguish  them- 
selves unmistakeably  from  the  faint.  Conversely, 
it  also  now  and  then  happens  (though  under  conditions 
which  we  significantly  distinguish  as  abnormal)  that  mani- 
festations of  the  faint  order  become  so  strong  as  to  be  mis- 
taken for  those  of  the  vivid  order.  Ideal  sights  and  sounds 
are  in  the  insane  so  much  intensified  as  to  be  classed  with 
real  sights  and  sounds — ideal  and  real  being  here  supposed 
to  imply  no  other  contrast  than  that  which  we  are  consider- 


THE  DATA   OF  PHILOSOPHY.  147 

ing.  These  cases  of  illusion,  as  we  call  them,  bear,  however, 
so  small  a  ratio  to  the  great  mass  of  cases,  that  we  may  safely 
neglect  them,  and  say  that  the  relative  faintness  of  these 
manifestations  of  the  second  order  is  so  marked,  that  we  are 
never  in  doubt  as  to  their  distinctness  from  those  of  the  first 
order.  Or  if  we  recognize  the  exceptional  occurrence  of 
doubt,  the  recognition  serves  but  to  introduce  the  significant 
fact  that  we  have  other  means  of  determining  to  which 
order  a  particular  manifestation  belongs,  when  the  test  of 
comparative  vividness  fails  us. 

Manifestations  of  the  vivid  order  precede,  in  our  experi- 
ence, those  of  the  faint  order;  or,  in  the  terms  quoted 
above,  the  idea  is  an  imperfect  and  feeble  repetition  of  the 
original  impression.  To  put  the  facts  in  historical  sequence 
— there  is  first  a  presented  manifestation  of  the  vivid  order, 
and  then,  afterwards,  there  may  come  a  represented  mani- 
festation that  is  like  it  except  in  being  much  less  distinct. 
Besides  the  universal  experience  that  after  having  those 
vivid  manifestations  which  we  call  particular  places  and 
persons  and  things,  we  can  have  those  faint  manifestations 
which  we  call  recollections  of  the  places,  persons,  and 
things,  but  cannot  have  these  previously;  and  besides  the 
universal  experience  that  before  tasting  certain  substances 
and  smelling  certain  perfumes  we  are  without  the  faint 
manifestations  known  as  ideas  of  their  tastes  and  smells ;  we 
have  also  the  fact  that  where  certain  orders  of  the  vivid 
manifestations  are  shut  out  (as  the  visible  from  the  blind 
and  the  audible  from  the  deaf)  the  corresponding  faint 
manifestations  never  come  into  existence.  It  is  true 

that  in  some  cases  the  faint  manifestations  precede  the  vivid. 
What  we  call  a  conception  of  a  machine  may  presently  be 
followed  by  a  vivid  manifestation  matching  it — a  so-called 
actual  machine.  But  in  the  first  place  this  occurrence  of  the 
vivid  manifestation  after  the  faint,  has  no  analogy  with  the 
occurrence  of  the  faint  after  the  vivid — its  sequence  is  not 
spontaneous  like  that  of  the  idea  after  the  impression.    And 


148  THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

in  the  second  place,  though  a  faint  manifestation  of  this 
kind  may  occur  before  the  vivid  one  answering  to  it,  yet  its 
component  parts  may  not.  Without  the  foregoing  vivid 
manifestations  of  wheels  and  bars  and  cranks,  the  inventor 
could  have  no  faint  manifestation  of  his  new  machine. 
Thus,  the  occurrence  of  the  faint  manifestations  is  made  pos- 
sible by  the  previous  occurrence  of  the  vivid.  They  are 
distinguished  from  one  another  as  independent  and  de- 
pendent. 

These  two  orders  of  manifestations  form  concurrent 
series;  or  rather  let  us  call  them,  not  series,  which  implies 
linear  arrangements,  but  heterogeneous  streams  or  pro- 
cessions. These  run  side  by  side;  each  now  broadening 
and  now  narrowing,  each  now  threatening  to  obliterate  its 
neighbour,  and  now  in  turn  threatened  with  obliteration, 
but  neither  ever  quite  excluding  the  other  from  their 
common  channel.  Let  us  watch  the  mutual  actions  of  the 
two  currents.  During  what  we  call  our  states  of 

activity,  the  vivid  manifestations  predominate.  We  simul- 
taneously receive  many  and  varied  presentations — a  crowd 
of  visual  impressions,  sounds  more  or  less  numerous,  resist- 
ances, tastes,  odours,  &c. ;  some  groups  of  them  changing, 
and  others  temporarily  fixed,  but  altering  as  we  move;  and 
when  we  compare  in  its  breadth  and  massiveness  this  hetero- 
geneous combination  of  vivid  manifestations  with  the  con- 
current combination  of  faint  manifestations,  these  last  sink 
into  relative  insignificance.  They  never  wholly  disappear 
however.  Always  along  with  the  vivid  manifestations, 
even  in  their  greatest  obtrusiveness,  analysis  discloses  a 
thread  of  thoughts  and  interpretations  constituted  of  the 
faint  manifestations.  Or  if  it  be  contended  that  the  occur- 
rence of  a  deafening  explosion  or  an  intense  pain  may  for  a 
moment  exclude  every  idea,  it  must  yet  be  admitted  that 
such  breach  of  continuity  can  never  be  immediately  known 
as  occurring ;  since  the  act  of  knowing  is  impossible  in  the 
absence  of  ideas.  On  the  other  hand,  after  cer- 


THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY.  149 

tain  vivid  manifestations  which  we  call  the  acts  of  closing 
the  eyes  and  adjusting  ourselves  so  as  to  enfeeble  the 
vivid  manifestations  of  pressure,  sound,  &c,  the  mani- 
festations of  the  faint  order  become  relatively  predominant. 
The  ever-varying  heterogeneous  current  of  them,  no  longer 
obscured  by  the  vivid  current,  grows  more  distinct,  and 
seems  almost  to  exclude  the  vivid  current.  But  while  what 
Ave  call  consciousness  continues,  the  current  of  vivid  mani- 
festations, however  small  the  dimensions  to  which  it  is 
reduced,  still  continues:  pressure  and  touch  do  not  wholly 
disappear.  It  is  only  on  lapsing  into  the  unconsciousness 
termed  sleep,  that  manifestations  of  the  vivid  order  cease 
to  be  distinguishable  as  such,  and  those  of  the  faint  order 
come  to  be  mistaken  for  them.  And  even  of  this  we  remain 
unaware  till  the  recurrence  of  manifestations  of  the  vivid 
order  on  awaking:  we  can  never  infer  that  manifestations 
of  the  vivid  order  have  been  absent,  until  they  are  again 
present;  and  can  therefore  never  directly  know  them  to  be 
absent.  Thus,   of  the  two  concurrent  compound 

series  of  manifestations,  each  preserves  its  continuity. 
As  they  flow  side  by  side,  each  trenches  on  the  other, 
but  there  never  comes  a  moment  at  which  it  can  be 
said  that  the  one  has,  then  and  there,  broken  through  the 
other. 

Besides  this  longitudinal  cohesion  there  is  a  lateral  cohe- 
sion, both  of  the  vivid  to  the  vivid  and  of  the  faint  to  the 
faint.  The  components  of  the  vivid  series  are  bound  to- 
gether by  ties  of  co-existence  as  well  as  by  ties  of  succes- 
sion; and  the  components  of  the  faint  series  are  similarly 
bound  together.  Between  the  degrees  of  union  in  the  two 
cases  there  are,  however,  marked  and  very  significant  dif- 
ferences. Let  us  observe  them.  Over  an  area 
occupying  part  of  the  so-called  field  of  view,  lights  and 
shades  and  colours  and  outlines  constitute  a  group  to  which, 
as  the  signs  of  an  object,  we  give  a  certain  name;  and  while 
they  continue  present,  these  united  vivid  manifestations 


150  THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

remain  inseparable.  So,  too,  is  it  with  co-existing  groups 
of  manifestations:  each  persists  as  a  special  combination; 
and  most  of  them  preserve  unchanging  relations  with 
those  around.  Such  of  them  as  do  not — such  of  them  as 
are  capable  of  what  we  call  independent  movements,  never- 
theless show  us  a  constant  connexion  between  certain  of 
the  manifestations  they  include,  along  with  a  variable  con- 
nexion of  others.  And  though  after  certain  vivid  mani- 
festations known  as  a  change  in  the  conditions  of  percep- 
tion, there  is  a  change  in  the  proportions  among  the  vivid 
manifestations  constituting  any  group,  their  cohesion  con- 
tinues— we  do  not  succeed  in  detaching  one  or  more  of 
them  from  the  rest.  Turning  to  the  faint  mani- 

festations, we  see  that  while  there  are  lateral  cohesions 
among  them,  these  are  much  less  extensive,  and  in  most 
cases  are  by  no  means  so  rigorous.  After  closing  my  eyes, 
I  can  represent  an  object  now  standing  in  a  certain  place, 
as  standing  in  some  other  place,  or  as  absent.  While  I 
look  at  a  blue  vase,  I  cannot  separate  the  vivid  manifes- 
tation of  blueness  from  the  vivid  manifestation  of  a 
particular  shape ;  but,  in  the  absence  of  these  vivid  manifes- 
tations, I  can  separate  the  faint  manifestation  of  the  shape 
from  the  faint  manifestation  of  blueness,  and  replace  the 
last  by  a  faint  manifestation  of  redness.  It  is  so  through- 
out: the  faint  manifestations  cling  together  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, but  nevertheless  most  of  them  may  be  re-arranged  with 
facility.  Indeed  none  of  the  individual  faint  manifesta- 
tions cohere  in  the  same  indissoluble  way  as  do  the  individ- 
ual vivid  manifestations.  Though  along  with  a  faint  mani- 
festation of  pressure  there  is  always  some  faint  manifesta- 
tion of  extension,  yet  no  particular  faint  manifestation  of  ex- 
tension is  bound  up  with  a  particular  faint  manifestation 
of  pressure.  So  that  whereas  in  the  vivid  order  the 

individual  manifestations  cohere  indissolubly,  usually  in 
large  groups,  in  the  faint  order  the  individual  manifesta- 
tions none  of  them  cohere  indissolubly,  and  are  most  of 


THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY.  151 

them  loosely  aggregated:  the  only  indissoluble  cohesions 
among  them  being  between  certain  of  their  generic  forms. 

While  the  components  of  each  current  cohere  with  one 
another,  they  do  not  cohere  at  all  strongly  with  those  of 
the  other  current.  Or,  more  correctly,  we  may  say  that  the 
vivid  current  habitually  flows  on  quite  undisturbed  by  the 
faint  current;  and  that  the  faint  current,  though  often 
largely  determined  by  the  vivid,  and  always  to  some  extent 
carried  with  it,  may  yet  maintain  a  substantial  independ- 
ence, letting  the  vivid  current  slide  by.  We  will  glance  at 
the  interactions  of  the  two.  The  successive  faint 

manifestations  constituting  thought,  fail  to  modify  in  the 
slightest  degree  the  vivid  manifestations  that  present  them- 
selves. Omitting  a  quite  peculiar  class  of  exceptions,  here- 
after to  be  dealt  with,  the  vivid  manifestations,  fixed  and 
changing,  are  not  directly  affected  by  the  faint.  Those 
which  I  distinguish  as  components  of  a  landscape,  as  surg- 
ings  of  the  sea,  as  whistlings  of  the  wind,  as  movements 
of  vehicles  and  people,  are  absolutely  uninfluenced  by  the 
accompanying  faint  manifestations  which  I  distinguish  as 
my  ideas.  On  the  other  hand,  the  current  of  faint 

manifestations  is  always  somewhat  perturbed  by  the  vivid. 
Frequently  it  consists  mainly  of  faint  manifestations  which 
cling  to  the  vivid  ones,  and  are  carried  with  them  as  they 
pass — memories  and  suggestions  as  we  call  them,  which, 
joined  with  the  vivid  manifestations  producing  them,  form 
almost  the  whole  body  of  the  manifestations.  At  other 
times,  when,  as  we  say,  absorbed  in  thought,  the  disturb- 
ance of  the  faint  current  is  but  superficial.  The  vivid  mani- 
festations drag  after  them  such  few  faint  manifestations 
only  as  constitute  recognitions  of  them :  to  each  impression 
adhere  certain  ideas  which  make  up  the  interpretation  of 
it  as  such  or  such.  But  there  meanwhile  flows  on  a  main 
stream  of  faint  manifestations  wholly  unrelated  to  the  vivid 
manifestations — what  we  call  a  reverie,  perhaps,  or  it  may 
be  a  process  of  reasoning.     And  occasionally,  during  the 


152  THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

state  known  as  absence  of  mind,  this  current  of  faint  mani- 
festations so  far  predominates  that  the  vivid  current  scarce- 
ly affects  it  at  all.  Hence,  these  concurrent  series 
of  manifestations,  each  coherent  with  itself  longitudinally 
and  laterally,  have  but  a  partial  coherence  with  one  an- 
other. The  vivid  series  is  quite  unmoved  by  its  passing 
neighbour;  and  though  the  faint  series  is  always  to  some 
extent  moved  by  the  adjacent  vivid  series,  and  is  often 
carried  bodily  along  with  the  vivid  series,  it  may  never- 
theless become  in  great  measure  separate. 

Yet  another  all-important  differential  characteristic  has 
to  be  specified.  The  conditions  under  which  these  respec- 
tive orders  of  manifestations  occur,  are  different;  and  the 
conditions  of  occurrence  of  each  order  belong  to  itself. 
Whenever  the  immediate  antecedents  of  vivid  manifesta- 
tions are  traceable,  they  prove  to  be  other  vivid  mani- 
festations; and  though  we  cannot  say  that  the  ante- 
cedents of  the  faint  manifestations  always  lie  wholly 
among  themselves,  yet  the  essential  ones  lie  wholly  among 
themselves.  These  statements  will  need  a  good  deal  of  ex- 
planation. Obviously,  changes  among  any  of  the 
vivid  manifestations  we  are  contemplating — the  motions 
and  sounds  and  alterations  of  appearance,  in  what  we  call 
surrounding  objects — are  either  changes  that  follow  certain 
vivid  manifestations,  or  changes  of  which  the  antecedents 
are  unapparent.  Some  of  the  vivid  manifestations,  how- 
ever, occur  only  under  certain  conditions  that  seem  to  be  of 
another  order.  Those  which  we  know  as  colours  and  visi- 
ble forms  presuppose  open  eyes.  But  what  is  the  opening 
of  the  eyes,  translated  into  the  terms  we  are  here  using? 
Literally  it  is  an  occurrence  of  certain  vivid  manifestations. 
The  preliminary  idea  of  opening  the  eyes  does,  indeed,  con- 
sist of  faint  manifestations,  but  the  act  of  opening  them 
consists  of  vivid  manifestations.  And  the  like  is  still  more 
conspicuously  the  case  with  those  movements  of  the  eyes 
and  the  head  which  are  followed  by  new  groups  of  vivid 


THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY.  153 

manifestations.  Similarly  with  the  antecedents  to  the  vivid 
manifestations  which  we  distinguish  as  those  of  touch  and 
pressure.  All  the  changeable  ones  have  for  their  conditions 
of  occurrence  certain  vivid  manifestations  which  we  know 
as  sensations  of  muscular  tension.  It  is  true  that  the  condi- 
tions to  these  conditions  are  manifestations  of  the  faint  order 
— those  ideas  of  muscular  actions  which  precede  muscular 
actions.  And  we  are  here  introduced  to  a  complication 
arising  from  the  fact  that  what  is  called  the  body,  is  present 
to  us  as  a  set  of  vivid  manifestations  connected  with  the 
faint  manifestations  in  a  special  way — a  way  such  that  in 
it  alone  certain  vivid  manifestations  are  capable  of  being 
produced  by  faint  manifestations.  There  must  be  named, 
too,  the  kindred  exception  furnished  by  the  emotions — 
an  exception  which,  however,  serves  to  enforce  the  gen- 
eral proposition.  For  while  it  is  true  that  the  emotions  are 
to  be  considered  as  a  certain  kind  of  vivid  manifestations, 
and  are  yet  capable  of  being  produced  by  the  faint  mani- 
festations we  call  ideas;  it  is  also  true  that  because  the 
conditions  to  their  occurrence  thus  exist  among  the  faint 
manifestations,  we  class  them  as  belonging  to  the  same  gen- 
eral aggregate  as  the  faint  manifestations — do  not  class 
them  with  such  other  vivid  manifestations  as  colours, 
sounds,  pressures,  smells,  &c.  But  omitting  these  peculiar 
vivid  manifestations  which  we  know  as  muscular  tensions 
and  emotions,  and  which  we  habitually  class  apart,  we  may 
say  of  all  the  rest,  that  the  conditions  to  their  existence  as 
vivid  manifestations  are  manifestations  belonging  to  their 
own  class.  In  the  parallel  current  we  find  a  paral- 

lel truth.  Though  many  manifestations  of  the  faint  order 
are  partly  caused  by  manifestations  of  the  vivid  order, 
which  call  up  memories  as  we  say,  and  suggest  inferences; 
yet  these  results  mainly  depend  on  certain  antecedents  be- 
longing to  the  faint  order.  A  cloud  drifts  across  the  sun, 
and  may  or  may  not  produce  an  effect  on  the  current  of 
ideas:  the  inference  that  it  is  about  to  rain  may  arise,  or 
13 


154  THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

there  may  be  a  persistence  in  the  previous  train  of  thought 
— a  difference  obviously  determined  by  conditions  among 
the  thoughts.  Again,  such  power  as  a  vivid  manifesta- 
tion has  of  causing  certain  faint  manifestations  to  arise, 
depends  on  the  pre-existence  of  certain  appropriate  faint 
manifestations.  If  I  have  never  heard  a  curlew,  the  cry 
which  an  unseen  one  makes,  fails  to  produce  an  idea  of  the 
bird.  And  we  have  but  to  remember  what  various  trains  of 
reflection  are  aroused  by  the  same  sight,  to  see  how  essen- 
tially the  occurrence  of  each  faint  manifestation  depends  on 
its  relations  to  other  faint  manifestations  that  have  gone 
before  or  that  co-exist. 

Here  we  are  introduced,  lastly,  to  one  of  the  most  strik- 
ing, and  perhaps  the  most  important,  of  the  differences  be- 
tween those  two  orders  of  manifestations — a  difference  con- 
tinuous with  that  just  pointed  out,  but  one  which  may  with 
advantage  be  separately  insisted  upon.  The  conditions  of 
occurrence  are  not  distinguished  solely  by  the  fact  that  each 
set,  when  identifiable,  belongs  to  its  own  order  of  manifesta- 
tions; but  they  are  further  distinguished  in  a  very  signifi- 
cant way.  Manifestations  of  the  faint  order  have  traceable 
antecedents;  can  be  made  to  occur  by  establishing  their 
conditions  of  occurrence;  and  can  be  suppressed  by  estab- 
lishing other  conditions.  But  manifestations  of  the  vivid 
order  continually  occur  without  previous  presentation  of 
their  antecedents;  and  in  many  cases  they  persist  or  cease, 
under  either  known  or  unknown  conditions,  in  such  way  as 
to  show  that  their  conditions  are  wholly  beyond  control. 
The  impression  distinguished  as  a  flash  of  lightning,  breaks 
across  the  current  of  our  thoughts,  absolutely  without 
notice.  The  sounds  from  a  band  that  strikes  up  in  the 
street  or  from  a  crash  of  china  in  the  next  room,  are  not 
connected  with  any  of  the  previously-present  manifesta- 
tions, either  of  the  faint  or  of  the  vivid  order.  Often 
these  vivid  manifestations,  arising  unexpectedly,  persist  in 
thrusting  themselves  across  the  current  of  the  faint  ones; 


THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY.  155 

which  not  only  cannot  directly  affect  them,  but  cannot 
even  indirectly  affect  them.  A  wound  produced  by  a 
violent  blow  from  behind,  is  a  vivid  manifestation  the  con- 
ditions of  occurrence  of  which  were  neither  among  the  faint 
nor  among  the  vivid  manifestations;  and  the  conditions  to 
the  persistence  of  which  are  bound  up  with  the  vivid  mani- 
festations in  some  unmanifested  way.  So  that  whereas  in 
the  faint  order,  the  conditions  of  occurrence  are  always 
among  the  pre-existing  or  co-existing  manifestations;  in 
the  vivid  order,  the  conditions  of  occurrence  are  often  not 
present. 

Thus  we  find  many  salient  characters  in  which  mani- 
festations of  the  one  order  are  like  one  another,  and  unlike 
those  of  the  other  order.  Let  us  briefly  re-enumerate  these 
salient  characters.  Manifestations  of  the  one  order  are 
vivid  and  those  of  the  other  are  faint.  Those  of  the  one 
order  are  originals,  while  those  of  the  other  order  are  copies. 
The  first  form  with  one  another  a  series,  or  heterogeneous 
current,  that  is  never  broken ;  and  the  second  also  form  with 
one  another  a  parallel  series  or  current  that  is  never  broken : 
or,  to  speak  strictly,  no  breakage  of  either  is  ever  directly 
known.  Those  of  the  first  order  cohere  with  one  another, 
not  only  longitudinally  but  also  transversely;  as  do  also 
those  of  the  second  order  with  one  another.  Between  mani- 
festations of  the  first  order  the  cohesions,  both  longitudinal 
and  transverse,  are  indissoluble;  but  between  manifesta- 
tions of  the  second  order,  these  cohesions  are  most  of  them 
dissoluble  with  ease.  While  the  members  of  each  series  or 
current  are  so  coherent  with  one  another  that  the  current 
cannot  be  broken,  the  two  currents,  running  side  by  side  as 
they  do,  have  but  little  coherence — the  great  body  of  the 
vivid  current  is  absolutely  unmodifiable  by  the  faint,  and 
the  faint  may  become  almost  separate  from  the  vivid.  The 
conditions  under  which  manifestations  of  either  order  oc- 
cur, themselves  belong  to  that  order;  but  whereas  in  the 
faint  order,  the  conditions  are  always  present,  in  the  vivid 


156  THE  DATA   OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

order  the  conditions  are  often  not  present,  but  lie  some- 
where outside  of  the  series.  Seven  separate  characters, 
then,  mark  off  these  two  orders  of  manifestations  from  one 
another. 

§  44.  What  is  the  meaning  of  this?  The  foregoing 
analysis  was  commenced  in  the  belief  that  the  proposition 
postulated  by  Philosophy,  must  affirm  some  ultimate  classes 
of  likenesses  and  unlikenesses,  in  which  all  other  classes 
merge;  and  here  we  have  found  that  all  manifestations  of 
the  Unknowable  are  divisible  into  two  such  classes.  What 
is  the  division  equivalent  to? 

Obviously  it  corresponds  to  the  division  between  object 
and  subject.  This  profoundest  of  distinctions  among  the 
manifestations  of  the  Unknowable,  we  recognize  by  group- 
ing them  into  self  and  not-self.  These  faint  manifestations, 
forming  a  continuous  whole  differing  from  the  other  in  the 
quantity,  quality,  cohesion,  and  conditions  of  existence  of 
its  parts,  we  call  the  ego  y  and  these  vivid  manifestations, 
indissolubly  bound  together  in  relatively-immense  masses, 
and  having  independent  conditions  of  existence,  we  call  the 
non-ego.  Or  rather,  more  truly — each  order  of  manifesta- 
tions carries  with  it  the  irresistible  implication  of  some 
power  that  manifests  itself;  and  by  the  words  ego  and  non- 
ego  respectively,  we  mean  the  power  that  manifests  itself  in 
the  faint  forms,  and  the  power  that  manifests  itself  in  the 
vivid  forms. 

As  we  here  see,  these  consolidated  conceptions  thus  anti- 
thetically named,  do  not  originate  in  some  inscrutable  way; 
but  they  have  for  their  explanation  the  ultimate  law  of 
thought  that  is  beyond  appeal.  The  persistent  conscious- 
ness of  likeness  or  difference,  is  one  which,  by  its  very  per- 
sistence, makes  itself  accepted;  and  one  which  transcends 
scepticism,  since  without  it  even  doubt  becomes  impossible. 
And  the  primordial  division  of  self  from  not-self,  is  a  cumu- 
lative result  of  persistent  consciousnesses  of  likenesses  and 


THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY.  15? 

differences  among  manifestations.  Indeed,  thought  exists 
only  through  that  kind  of  act  which  leads  us,  from  moment 
to  moment,  to  refer  certain  manifestations  to  the  one  class 
with  which  they  have  so  many  common  attributes,  and 
others  to  the  other  class  with  which  they  have  common 
attributes  equally  numerous.  And  the  myriad-fold  repeti- 
tion of  these  classings,  bringing  about  the  myriad-fold  asso- 
ciations of  each  manifestation  with  those  of  its  own  class, 
brings  about  this  union  among  the  members  of  each  class, 
and  this  disunion  of  the  two  classes. 

Strictly  speaking,  this  segregation  of  the  manifestations 
and  coalescence  of  them  into  two  distinct  wholes,  is  in 
great  part  spontaneous,  and  precedes  all  deliberate  judg- 
ments; though  it  is  endorsed  by  such  judgments  when  they 
come  to  be  made.  For  the  manifestations  of  each  order 
have  not  simply  that  kind  of  union  implied  by  grouping 
them  as  individual  objects  of  the  same  class;  but,  as  we 
have  seen,  they  have  the  much  more  intimate  union  implied 
by  actual  cohesion.  This  cohesive  union  exhibits  itself 
before  any  conscious  acts  of  classing  take  place.  So  that, 
in  truth,  these  two  contrasted  orders  of  manifestations  are 
substantially  self-separated  and  self-consolidated.  The 
members  of  each,  by  clinging  to  one  another  and  parting 
from  their  opposites,  themselves  form  these  united  wholes 
constituting  object  and  subject.  It  is  this  self -union  which 
gives  to  these  wholes  formed  of  them,  their  individualities 
as  wholes,  and  that  separateness  from  each  other  which 
transcends  judgment;  and  judgment  merely  aids  the  pre- 
determined segregation  by  assigning  to  their  respective 
classes,  such  manifestations  as  have  not  distinctly  united 
themselves  with  the  rest  of  their  kind. 

One  further  perpetually-repeated  act  of  judgment  there 
is,  indeed,  which  strengthens  this  fundamental  antithesis, 
and  gives  a  vast  extension  to  one  term  of  it.  We  continually 
learn  that  while  the  conditions  of  occurrence  of  faint  mani- 
festations are  always  to  be  found,  the  conditions  of  oc- 


158  THE  DATA   OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

currence  of  vivid  manifestations  are  often  not  to  be  found. 
We  also  continually  learn  that  vivid  manifestations  which 
have  no  perceivable  antecedents  among  the  vivid  manifesta- 
tions, are  like  certain  preceding  ones  which  had  perceivable 
antecedents  among -the  vivid  manifestations.  Joining  these 
two  experiences  together,  there  results  the  irresistible  con- 
ception that  some  vivid  manifestations  have  conditions  of 
occurrence  existing  out  of  the  current  of  vivid  manifesta- 
tions— existing  as  potential  vivid  manifestations  capable  of 
becoming  actual.  And  so  we  are  made  vaguely  conscious 
of  an  indefinitely-extended  region  of  power  or  being,  not 
merely  separate  from  the  current  of  faint  manifestations 
constituting  the  ego,  but  lying  beyond  the  current  of  vivid 
manifestations  constituting  the  immediately-present  portion 
of  the  ?ion-ego. 

§  45.  In  a  very  imperfect  way,  passing  over  objections 
and  omitting  needful  explanations,  I  have  thus,  in  the 
narrow  space  that  could  properly  be  devoted  to  it,  indicated 
the  essential  nature  and  justification  of  that  primordial 
proposition  which  Philosophy  requires  as  a  datum.  I  might, 
indeed,  safely  have  assumed  this  ultimate  truth;  which 
Common  Sense  asserts,  which  every  step  in  Science  takes 
for  granted,  and  which  no  metaphysician  ever  for  a  moment 
succeeded  in  expelling  from  consciousness.  Setting  out 
with  the  postulate  that  the  manifestations  of  the  Unknow- 
able fall  into  the  two  separate  aggregates  constituting  the 
world  of  consciousness  and  the  world  beyond  consciousness, 
I  might  have  let  the  justification  of  this  postulate  depend  on 
its  subsequently-proved  congruity  with  every  result  of  ex- 
perience, direct  and  indirect.  But  as  all  that  follows  pro- 
ceeds upon  this  postulate,  it  seemed  desirable  briefly  to  indi- 
cate its  warrant,  with  the  view  of  shutting  out  criticisms  that 
might  else  be  made.  It  seemed  desirable  to  show  that  this 
fundamental  cognition  is  neither,  as  the  idealist  asserts,  an 
illusion,  nor  as  the  sceptic  thinks,  of  doubtful  worth,  nor  as 


THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY.  159 

is  held  by  the  natural  realist,  an  inexplicable  intuition;  but 
that  it  is  a  legitimate  deliverance  of  consciousness  elaborat- 
ing its  materials  after  the  laws  of  its  normal  action.  While, 
in  order  of  time,  the  establishment  of  this  distinction  pre- 
cedes all  reasoning ;  and  while,  running  through  our  mental 
structure  as  it  does,  we  are  debarred  from  reasoning  about 
it  without  taking  for  granted  its  existence;  analysis  never- 
theless enables  us  to  justify  the  assertion  of  its  existence,  by 
showing  that  it  is  also  the  outcome  of  a  classification  based 
on  accumulated  likenesses  and  accumulated  differences.  In 
other  words — Reasoning,  which  is  itself  but  a  formation  of 
cohesions  among  manifestations,  here  strengthens,  by  the 
cohesion  it  forms,  the  cohesions  which  it  finds  already  ex- 
isting. 

So  much,  then,  for  the  data  of  Philosophy.  In  common 
with  Religion,  Philosophy  assumes  the  primordial  implica- 
tion of  consciousness,  which,  as  we  saw  in  the  last  part,  has 
the  deepest  of  all  foundations.  It  assumes  the  validity  of  a 
certain  primordial  process  of  consciousness,  without  which 
inference  is  impossible,  and  without  which  there  cannot 
even  be  either  affirmation  or  denial.  And  it  assumes  the 
validity  of  a  certain  primordial  product  of  consciousness, 
which  though  it  originates  in  an  earlier  process,  is  also,  in 
one  sense,  a  product  of  this  process,  since  by  this  process 
it  is  tested  and  stamped  as  genuine.  In  brief,  our  postu- 
lates are: — an  Unknowable  Power;  the  existence  of  know- 
able  likenesses  and  differences  among  the  manifestations  of 
that  Power;  and  a  resulting  segregation  of  the  manifes- 
tations into  those  of  subject  and  object. 

Before  proceeding  with  the  substantial  business  of  Phi- 
losophy— the  complete  unification  of  the  knowledge  par- 
tially unified  by  Science,  a  further  preliminary  is  needed. 
The  manifestations  of  the  Unknowable,  separated  into  the 
two  divisions  of  self  and  not-self,  are  re-divisible  into  certain 
most  general  forms,  the  reality  of  which  Science,  as  well  as 
Common  Sense,  from  moment  to  moment  assumes.    In  the 


160  THE  DATA  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

chapter  on  "  Ultimate  Scientific  Ideas,"  it  was  shown  that 
we  know  nothing  of  these  forms,  considered  in  themselves. 
As,  nevertheless,  we  must  continue  to  use  the  words  signify- 
ing them,  it  is  needful  to  say  what  interpretations  are  to  be 
put  on  these  words. 


CHAPTEE  III. 

SPACE,  TIME,  MATTER,  MOTION,  AND  FORCE. 

§  46.  That  sceptical  state  of  mind  which  the  criticisms 
of  Philosophy  usually  produce,  is,  in  great  measure,  caused 
by  the  misinterpretation  of  words.  A  sense  of  universal  illu- 
sion ordinarily  follows  the  reading  of  metaphysics;  and  is 
strong  in  proportion  as  the  argument  has  appeared  con- 
clusive. This  sense  of  universal  illusion  would  probably 
never  have  arisen,  had  the  terms  used  been  always  rightly 
construed.  Unfortunately,  these  terms  have  by  association 
acquired  meanings  that  are  quite  different  from  those  given 
to  them  in  philosophical  discussions ;  and  the  ordinary  mean- 
ings being  unavoidably  suggested,  there  results  more  or  less 
of  that  dream-like  realism  which  is  so  incongruous  with  our 
instinctive  convictions.  The  word  phenomenon  and  its 
equivalent  word  appearance,  are  in  great  part  to  blame  for 
this.  In  ordinary  speech,  these  are  uniformly  employed  in 
reference  to  visual  perceptions.  Habit,  almost,  if  not  quite, 
disables  us  from  thinking  of  appearance  except  as  something 
seen ;  and  though  phenomenon  has  a  more  generalized  mean- 
ing, yet  we  cannot  rid  it  of  associations  with  appearance, 
which  is  its  verbal  equivalent.  When,  therefore,  Philoso- 
phy proves  that  our  knowledge  of  the  external  world  can  be 
but  phenomenal — when  it  concludes  that  the  things  of 
which  we  are  conscious  are  appearances;  it  inevitably 
arouses  in  us  the  notion  of  an  illusiveness  like  that  to  which 
our  visual  perceptions  are  so  liable  in  comparison  with  our 

161 


162      SPACE,   TIME,   MATTER,   MOTION,  AND  FORCE. 

tactual  perceptions.  Good  pictures  show  us  that  the  aspects 
of  things  may  be  very  nearly  simulated  by  colours  on  can- 
vas. The  looking-glass  still  more  distinctly  proves  how  de- 
ceptive is  sight  when  unverified  by  touch.  And  the  fre- 
quent cases  in  which  we  misinterpret  the  impressions  made 
on  our  eyes,  and  think  we  see  something  which  we  do  not 
see,  further  shake  our  faith  in  vision.  So  that  the  implica- 
tion of  uncertainty  has  infected  the  very  word  appearance. 
Hence,  Philosophy,  by  giving  it  an  extended  meaning, 
leads  us  to  think  of  all  our  senses  as  deceiving  us  in  the 
same  way  that  the  eyes  do;  and  so  makes  us  feel  ourselves 
floating  in  a  world  of  phantasms.  Had  phenomenon  and  ap- 
pearance no  such  misleading  associations,  little,  if  any,  of 
this  mental  confusion  would  result.  Or  did  we  in  place  of 
them  use  the  term  effect,  which  is  equally  applicable  to  all 
impressions  produced  on  consciousness  through  any.  of  the 
senses,  and  which  carries  with  it  in  thought  the  necessary 
correlative  cause,  with  which  it  is  equally  real,  we  should 
be  in  little  danger  of  falling  into  the  insanities  of  idealism. 
Such  danger  as  there  might  still  remain,  would  disap- 
pear on  making  a  further  verbal  correction.  At  present,  the 
confusion  resulting  from  the  above  misinterpretation,  is 
made  greater  by  an  antithetical  misinterpretation.  We 
increase  the  seeming  unreality  of  that  phenomenal  existence 
which  we  can  alone  know,  by  contrasting  it  with  a  noumenal 
existence  which  we  imagine  would,  if  we  could  know  it, 
be  more  truly  real  to  us.  But  we  delude  ourselves  with  a 
verbal  fiction.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word 

real?  This  is  the  question  which  underlies  every  metaphys- 
ical inquiry;  and  the  neglect  of  it  is  the  remaining  cause 
of  the  chronic  antagonisms  of  metaphysicians.  In  the  in- 
terpretation put  on  the  word  real,  the  discussions  of  philoso- 
phy retain  one  element  of  the  vulgar  conception  of  things, 
while  they  reject  all  its  other  elements;  and  create  confu- 
sion by  the  inconsistency.  The  peasant,  on  contemplat- 
ing an  object,  does  not  regard  that  which  he  contemplates 


SPACE,  TIME,  MATTER,   MOTION,   AND  FORCE.      1G3 

as  something  in  himself,  but  believes  the  thing  of  which  he 
is  conscious  to  be  the  external  object — imagines  that  his 
consciousness  extends  to  the  very  place  where  the  object 
lies:  to  him  the  appearance  and  the  reality  are  one  and  the 
same  thing.  The  metaphysician,  however,  is  convinced 
that  consciousness  cannot  embrace  the  reality,  but  only 
the  appearance  of  it;  and  so  he  transfers  the  appearance 
into  consciousness  and  leaves  the  reality  outside.  This  real- 
ity left  outside  of  consciousness,  he  continues  to  think  of 
much  in  the  same  way  as  the  ignorant  man  thinks  of  the 
appearance.  Though  the  reality  is  asserted  to  be  out  of  con- 
sciousness, yet  the  realness  ascribed  to  it  is  constantly  spoken 
of  as  though  it  were  a  knowledge  possessed  apart  from  con- 
sciousness. It  seems  to  be  forgotten  that  the  conception  of 
reality  can  be  nothing  more  than  some  mode  of  conscious- 
ness ;  and  that  the  question  to  be  considered  is — What  is  the 
relation  between  this  mode  and  other  modes? 

By  reality  we  mean  persistence  in  consciousness :  a  per- 
sistence that  is  either  unconditional,  as  our  consciousness  of 
space,  or  that  is  conditional,  as  our  consciousness  of  a  body 
while  grasping  it.  The  real,  as  we  conceive  it,  is  distin- 
guished solely  by  the  test  of  persistence ;  for  by  this  test  we 
separate  it  from  what  we  call  the  unreal.  Between  a  person 
standing  before  us,  and  the  idea  of  such  a  person,  we  dis- 
criminate by  our  ability  to  expel  the  idea  from  conscious- 
ness, and  our  inability,  while  looking  at  him,  to  expel  the 
person  from  consciousness.  And  when  in  doubt  as  to  the  va- 
lidity or  illusiveness  of  some  impression  made  upon  us  in  the 
dusk,  we  settle  the  matter  by  observing  whether  the  impres- 
sion persists  on  closer  observation;  and  we  predicate  reality 
if  the  persistence  is  complete.  How  truly  persistence 

is  what  we  mean  by  reality,  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  when, 
after  criticism  has  proved  that  the  real  as  we  are  conscious 
of.it  is  not  the  objectively  real,  the  indefinite  notion  which 
we  form  of  the  objectively  real,  is  of  something  which  per- 
sists absolutely,  under  all  changes  of  mode,  form,  or  ap- 


164      SPACE,  TIME,  MATTER,   MOTION,  AND  FORCE. 

pearance.  And  the  fact  that  we  cannot  form  even  an 
indefinite  notion  of  the  absolutely  real,  except  as  the  abso- 
lutely persistent,  clearly  implies  that  persistence  is  our  ulti- 
mate test  of  the  real  as  present  to  consciousness. 

Reality  then,  as  we  think  it,  being  nothing  more  than 
persistence  in  consciousness,  the  result  must  be  the  same  to 
us  whether  that  which  we  perceive  be  the  Unknowable 
itself,  or  an  effect  invariably  wrought  on  us  by  the  Un- 
knowable. If,  under  constant  conditions  furnished  by  our 
constitutions,  some  Power  of  which  the  nature  is  beyond 
conception,  always  produces  some  mode  of  consciousness — 
if  this  mode  of  consciousness  is  as  persistent  as  would  be 
this  Power  were  it  in  consciousness;  the  reality  will  be  to 
consciousness  as  complete  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other. 
Were  Unconditioned  Being  itself  present  in  thought,  it 
could  but  be  persistent;  and  if,  instead,  there  is  present 
Being  conditioned  by  the  forms  of  thought,  but  no  less 
persistent,  it  must  be  to  us  no  less  real. 

Hence  there  may  be  drawn  these  conclusions: — First, 
that  we  have  an  indefinite  consciousness  of  an  absolute  real- 
ity transcending  relations,  which  is  produced  by  the  absolute 
persistence  in  us  of  something  which  survives  all  changes  of 
relation.  Second,  that  we  have  a  definite  consciousness  of 
relative  reality,  which  unceasingly  persists  in  us  under  one 
or  other  of  its  forms,  and  under  each  form  so  long  as  the  con- 
ditions of  presentation  are  fulfilled;  and  that  the  relative 
reality,  being  thus  continuously  persistent  in  us,  is  as  real  to 
us  as  would  be  the  absolute  reality  could  it  be  immediately 
known.  Third,  that  thought  being  possible  only  under  rela- 
tion, the  relative  reality  can  be  conceived  as  such  only  in 
connexion  with  an  absolute  reality;  and  the  connexion 
between  the  two  being  absolutely  persistent  in  our  con- 
sciousness, is  real  in  the  same  sense  as  the  terms  it  unites  are 
real. 

Thus  then  we  may  resume,  with  entire  confidence,  those 
realistic  conceptions  which  philosophy  at  first  sight  seems  to 


SPACE,   TIME,  MATTER,  MOTION,  AND   FORCE.      165 

dissipate.  Though  reality  under  the  forms  of  our  conscious- 
ness, is  but  a  conditioned  effect  of  the  absolute  reality,  yet 
this  conditioned  effect  standing  in  indissoluble  relation  with 
its  unconditioned  cause,  and  being  equally  persistent  with 
it  so  long  as  the  conditions  persist,  is,  to  the  consciousness 
supplying  those  conditions,  equally  real.  The  persistent 
impressions  being  the  persistent  results  of  a  persistent 
cause,  are  for  practical  purposes  the  same  to  us  as  the  cause 
itself;  and  may  be  habitually  dealt  with  as  its  equivalents. 
Somewhat  in  the  same  way  that  our  visual  perceptions, 
though  merely  symbols  found  to  be  the  equivalents  of  tac- 
tual perceptions,  are  yet  so  identified  with  those  tactual 
perceptions  that  we  actually  appear  to  see  the  solidity  and 
hardness  which  we  do  but  infer,  and  thus  conceive  as  objects 
what  are  only  the  signs  of  objects;  so,  on  a  higher  stage, 
do  we  deal  with  these  relative  realities  as  though  they  were 
absolutes  instead  of  effects  of  the  absolute.  And  we  may 
legitimately  continue  so  to  deal  with  them  as  long  as  the  con- 
clusions to  which  they  help  us  are  understood  as  relative 
realities  and  not  absolute  ones. 

This  general  conclusion  it  now  remains  to  interpret 
specifically,  in  its  application  to  each  of  our  ultimate  scien- 
tific ideas. 

§  47.*  We  think  in  relations.  This  is  truly  the  form  of 
all  thought ;  and  if  there  are  any  other  forms,  they  must  be 
derived  from  this.  We  have  seen  (Chap.  iii.  Part  I.)  that 
the  several  ultimate  modes  of  being  cannot  be  known  or  con- 
ceived as  they  exist  in  themselves ;  that  is,  out  of  relation  to 
our  consciousness.  We  have  seen,  by  analyzing  the  pro- 
duct of  thought,  (§  23,)  that  it  always  consists  of  relations; 
and  cannot  include  anything  beyond  the  most  general  of 
these.    On  analyzing  the  process  of  thought,  we  found  that 

*  For  the  psychological  conclusions  briefly  set  forth  in  this  and  the  three 
sections  following  it,  the  justification  will  be  found  in  the  writer's  Principles 
of  Psychology. 


166      SPACE,  TIME,   MATTER,   MOTION,  AND  FORCE. 

cognition  of  the  Absolute  was  impossible,  because  it  pre- 
sented neither  relation,  nor  its  elements — difference  and 
likeness.  Further,  we  found  that  not  only  Intelligence  but 
Life  itself,  consists  in  the  establishment  of  internal  relations 
in  correspondence  with  external  relations.  And  lastly, 
it  was  shown  that  though  by  the  relativity  of  our  thought 
we  are  eternally  debarred  from  knowing  or  conceiving  Ab- 
solute Being;  yet  that  this  very  relativity  of  our  thought, 
necessitates  that  vague  consciousness  of  Absolute  Being 
which  no  mental  effort  can  suppress.  That  relation  is  the 
universal  form  of  thought,  is  thus  a  truth  which  all  kinds 
of  demonstration  unite  in  proving. 

By  the  transcendentalists,  certain  other  phenomena  of 
consciousness  are  regarded  as  forms  of  thought.  Presuming 
that  relation  would  be  admitted  by  them  to  be  a  universal 
mental  form,  they  would  class  with  it  two  others  as  also  uni- 
versal. "Were  their  hypothesis  otherwise  tenable  however,  it 
must  still  be  rejected  if  such  alleged  further  forms  are  inter- 
pretable  as  generated  by  the  primary  form.  If  we  think  in 
relations,  and  if  relations  have  certain  universal  forms,  it  is 
manifest  that  such  universal  forms  of  relations  will  become 
universal  forms  of  our  consciousness.  And  if  these  further 
universal  forms  are  thus  explicable,  it  is  superfluous,  and 
therefore  unphilosbphical,  to  assign  them  an  independent 
origin.  Now  relations  are  of  two  orders — relations 

of  sequence,  and  relations  of  co-existence ;  of  which  the  one 
is  original  and  the  other  derivative.  The  relation  of  se- 
quence is  given  in  every  change  of  consciousness.  The  rela- 
tion of  co-existence,  which  cannot  be  originally  given  in  a 
consciousness  of  which  the  states  are  serial,  becomes  distin- 
guished only  when  it  is  found  that  certain  relations  of 
sequence  have  their  terms  presented  in  consciousness  in 
either  order  with  equal  facility;  while  the  others  are  pre- 
sented only  in  one  order.  Relations  of  which  the  terms  are 
not  reversible,  become  recognized  as  sequences  proper; 
while  relations  of  which  the  terms  occur  indifferently  in 


SPACE,  TIME,  MATTER,  MOTION,  AND  FORCE,      167 

both  directions,  become  recognized  as  co-existences.  End- 
less experiences,  which  from  moment  to  moment  present 
both  orders  of  these  relations,  render  the  distinction  between 
them  perfectly  definite;  and  at  the  same  time  generate  an 
abstract  conception  of  each.  The  abstract  of  all  sequences 
is  Time.  The  abstract  of  all  co-existences  is  Space.  From 
the  fact  that  in  thought,  Time  is  inseparable  from  sequence, 
and  Space  from  co-existence,  we  do  not  here  infer  that  Time 
and  Space  are  original  conditions  of  consciousness  under 
which  sequences  and  co-existences  are  known ;  but  we  infer 
that  our  conceptions  of  Time  and  Space  are  gener- 
ated, as  other  abstracts  are  generated  from  other  con- 
cretes: the  only  difference  being,  that  the  organiza- 
tion of  experiences  has,  in  these  cases,  been  going  on 
throughout  the  entire  evolution  of  intelligence. 

This  synthesis  is  confirmed  by  analysis.  Our  conscious- 
ness of  Space  is  a  consciousness  of  co-existent  positions. 
Any  limited  portion  of  space  can  be  conceived  only  by 
representing  its  limits  as  co-existing  in  certain  relative  posi- 
tions; and  each  of  its  imagined  boundaries,  be  it  line  or 
plane,  can  be  thought  of  in  no  other  way  than  as  made  up  of 
co-existent  positions  in  close  proximity.  And  since  a  posi- 
tion is  not  an  entity — since  the  congeries  of  positions  which 
constitute  any  conceived  portion  of  space,  and  mark  its 
bounds,  are  not  sensible  existences;  it  follows  that  the 
co-existent  positions  which  make  up  our  consciousness  of 
Space,  are  not  co-existences  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word 
(which  implies  realities  as  their  terms),  but  are  the  blank 
forms  of  co-existences,  left  behind  when  the  realities  are 
absent;  that  is,  are  the  abstracts  of  co-existences.  The 

experiences  out  of  which,  during  the  evolution  of  intel- 
ligence, this  abstract  of  all  co-existences  has  been  generated, 
are  experiences  of  individual  positions  as  ascertained  by 
touch;  and  each  of  such  experiences  involves  the  resistance 
of  an  object  touched,  and  the  muscular  tension  which  meas- 
ures this  resistance.     By  countless  unlike  muscular  adjust- 


168      SPACE,  TIME,  MATTRE,  MOTION,  AND  FORCE. 

ments,  involving  unlike  muscular  tensions,  different  resist- 
ing positions  are  disclosed ;  and  these,  as  they  can  be  experi- 
enced in  one  order  as  readily  as  another,  we  regard  as  co-ex- 
isting. But  since,  under  other  circumstances,  the  same 
muscular  adjustments  do  not  produce  contact  with  resisting 
positions,  there  result  the  same  states  of  consciousness,  minus 
the  resistances — blank  forms  of  co-existence  from  which  the 
co-existent  objects  before  experienced  are  absent.  And 
from  a  building  up  of  these,  too  elaborate  to  be  here  de- 
tailed, results  that  abstract  of  all  relations  of  co-existence 
which  we  call  Space.  It  remains  only  to  point 

out,  as  a  thing  which  we  must  not  forget,  that  the  experi- 
ences from  which  the  consciousness  of  Space  arises,  are  ex- 
periences of  force.  A  certain  correlation  of  the  muscular 
forces  we  ourselves  exercise,  is  the  index  of  each  position 
as  originally  disclosed  to  us ;  and  the  resistance  which  makes 
us  aware  of  something  existing  in  that  position,  is  an  equiva- 
lent of  the  pressure  we  consciously  exert.  Thus,  experi- 
ences of  forces  variously  correlated,  are  those  from  which 
our  consciousness  of  Space  is  abstracted. 

That  which  we  know  as  Space  being  thus  shown,  alike  by 
its  genesis  and  definition,  to  be  purely  relative,  what  are  we 
to  say  of  that  which  causes  it?  Is  there  an  absolute  Space 
which  relative  Space  in  some  sort  represents  ?  Is  Space  in  it- 
self a  form  or  condition  of  absolute  existence,  producing  in 
our  minds  a  corresponding  form  or  condition  of  relative  ex- 
istence? These  are  unanswerable  questions.  Our  concep- 
tion of  Space  is  produced  by  some  mode  of  the  Unknowable ; 
and  the  complete  unchangeableness  of  our  conception  of  it 
simply  implies  a  complete  uniformity  in  the  effects  wrought 
by  this  mode  of  the  Unknowable  upon  us.  But  therefore  to 
call  it  a  necessary  mode  of  the  Unknowable,  is  illegitimate. 
All  we  can  assert  is,  that  Space  is  a  relative  reality ;  that  our 
consciousness  of  this  unchanging  relative  reality  implies 
an  absolute  reality  equally  unchanging  in  so  far  as  we  are 
concerned;  and  that  the  relative  reality  may  be  unhesitat- 


SPACE,  TIME,  MATTER,  MOTION,  AND  FORCE.      169 

ingly  accepted  in  thought  as  a  valid  basis  for  our  reason- 
ings ;  which,  when  rightly  carried  on,  will  bring  us  to  truths 
that  have  a  like  relative  reality — the  only  truths  which  con- 
cern us  or  can  j^ossibly  be  known  to  us. 

Concerning  Time,  relative  and  absolute,  a  parallel  argu- 
ment leads  to  parallel  conclusions.  These  are  too  obvious  to 
need  specifying  in  detail. 

§  48.  Our  conception  of  Matter,  reduced  to  its  simplest 
shape,  is  that  of  co-existent  positions  that  offer  resistance ;  as 
contrasted  with  our  conception  of  Space,  in  which  the  co- 
existent positions  offer  no  resistance.  We  think  of  Body  as 
bounded  by  surfaces  that  resist;  and  as  made  up  through- 
out of  parts  that  resist.  Mentally  abstract  the  co-existent 
resistances,  and  the  consciousness  of  Body  disappears;  leav- 
ing behind  it  the  consciousness  of  Space.  And  since  the 
group  of  co-existing  resistent  positions  constituting  a  por- 
tion of  matter,  is  uniformly  capable  of  giving  us  impressions 
of  resistance  in  combination  with  various  muscular  adjust- 
ments, according  as  we  touch  its  near,  its  remote,  its  right, 
or  its  left  side;  it  results  that  as  different  muscular  adjust- 
ments habitually  indicate  different  co-existences,  we  are 
obliged  to  conceive  every  portion  of  matter  as  containing 
more  than  one  resistent  position — that  is,  as  occupying 
Space.  Hence  the  necessity  we  are  under  of  representing 
to  ourselves  the  ultimate  elements  of  Matter  as  being  at 
once  extended  and  resistent:  this  being  tlie  universal  form 
of  our  sensible  experiences  of  Matter,  becomes  the  form 
which  our  conception  of  it  cannot  transcend,  however 
minute  the  fragments  which  imaginary  subdivisions  pro- 
duce. Of  these  two  inseparable  elements,  the  resist- 
ance is  primary,  and  the  extension  secondary.  Occupied  ex- 
tension, or  Body,  being  distinguished  in  consciousness  from 
unoccupied  extension,  or  Space,  by  its  resistance,  this  attri- 
bute must  clearly  have  precedence  in  the  genesis  of  the 
idea.      Such  a  conclusion  is,  indeed,  an  obvious  corollary 


170      SPACE,  TIME,   MATTER,  MOTION,   AND   FORCE. 

from  that  at  which  we  arrived  in  the  foregoing  section.  If, 
as  was  there  contended,  our  consciousness  of  Space  is  a  pro- 
duct of  accumulated  experiences,  partly  our  own  but  chiefly 
ancestral — if,  as  was  pointed  out,  the  experiences  from 
which  our  consciousness  of  Space  is  abstracted,  can  be  re- 
ceived only  through  impressions  of  resistance  made  upon 
the  organism;  the  necessary  inference  is,  that  experiences 
of  resistance  being  those  from  which  the  conception  of 
Space  is  generated,  the  resistance-attribute  of  Matter  must 
be  regarded  as  primordial  and  the  space-attribute  as  de- 
rivative. Whence  it  becomes  manifest  that  our  ex- 
perience of  force,  is  that  out  of  which  the  idea  of  Matter  is 
built.  Matter  as  opposing  our  muscular  energies,  being  im- 
mediately present  to  consciousness  in  terms  of  force ;  and  its 
occupancy  of  Space  being  known  by  an  abstract  of  experi- 
ences originally  given  in  terms  of  force;  it  follows  that 
forces,  standing  in  certain  correlations,  form  the  whole  con- 
tent of  our  idea  of  Matter. 

Such  being  our  cognition  of  the  relative  reality,  what  are 
we  to  say  of  the  absolute  reality  I  AVe  can  only  say  that  it 
is  some  mode  of  the  Unknowable,  related  to  the  Matter  we 
know,  as  cause  to  effect.  The  relativity  of  our  cognition  of 
Matter  is  shown  alike  by  the  above  analysis,  and  by  the  con- 
tradictions which  are  evolved  when  we  deal  with  the  cogni- 
tion as  an  absolute  one  (§  16).  But,  as  we  have  lately  seen, 
though  known  to  us  only  under  relation,  Matter  is  as  real  in 
the  true  sense  of  that  word,  as  it  would  be  could  we  know  it 
out  of  relation;  and  further,  the  relative  reality  which  we 
know  as  Matter,  is  necessarily  represented  to  the  mind  as 
standing  in  a  persistent  or  real  relation  to  the  absolute  real- 
ity. We  may  therefore  deliver  ourselves  over  with- 
out hesitation,  to  those  terms  of  thought  which  experience 
has  organized  in  us.  TTe  need  not  in  our  physical,  chemical, 
or  other  researches,  refrain  from  dealing  with  Matter  as 
made  up  of  extended  and  resistent  atoms;  for  this  concep- 
tion, necessarily  resulting  from  our  experiences  of  Matter, 


SPACE,  TIME,  MATTER,  MOTION,  AND   FORCE.      \^\ 

is  not  less  legitimate  than  the  conception  of  aggregate 
masses  as  extended  and  resistent.  The  atomic  hypothesis, 
as  well  as  the  kindred  hypothesis  of  an  all-pervading  ether 
consisting  of  molecules,  is  simply  a  necessary  development 
of  those  universal  forms  which  the  actions  of  the  Unknow- 
able have  wrought  in  us.  The  conclusions  logically  worked 
out  by  the  aid  of  these  hypotheses,  are  sure  to  be  in  harmony 
with  all  others  which  these  same  forms  involve,  and  will 
have  a  relative  truth  that  is  equally  complete. 

§  49.  The  conception  of  Motion  as  presented  or  repre- 
sented in  the  developed  consciousness,  involves  the  concep- 
tions of  Space,  of  Time,  and  of  Matter.  A  something  that 
moves;  a  series  of  positions  occupied  in  succession;  and  a 
group  of  co-existent  positions  united  in  thought  with  the  suc- 
cessive ones — these  are  the  constituents  of  the  idea.  And 
since,  as  we  have  seen,  these  are  severally  elaborated  from 
experiences  of  force  as  given  in  certain  correlations,  it  fol- 
lows that  from  a  further  synthesis  of  such  experiences,  the 
idea  of  Motion  is  also  elaborated.  A  certain  other  element 
in  the  idea,  which  is  in  truth  its  fundamental  element, 
(namely,  the  necessity  which  the  moving  body  is  under 
to  go  on  changing  its  position),  results  immediately  from  the 
earliest  experiences  of  force.  Movements  of  different  parts 
of  the  organism  in  relation  to  each  other,  are  the  first  pre- 
sented in  consciousness.  These,  produced  by  the  action  of 
the  muscles,  necessitate  reactions  upon  consciousness  in  the 
shape  of  sensations  of  muscular  tension.  Consequently,  each 
stretching-out  or  drawing-in  of  a  limb,  is  originally  known 
as  a  series  of  muscular  tensions,  varying  in  intensity  as  the 
position  of  the  limb  changes.  And  this  rudimentary  con- 
sciousness of  Motion,  consisting  of  serial  impressions  of 
force,  becomes  inseparably  united  with  the  consciousness 
of  Space  and  Time  as  fast  as  these  are  abstracted  from  fur- 
ther impressions  of  force.  Or  rather,  out  of  this  primitive 
conception  of  Motion,  the  adult  conception  of  it  is  developed 


172      SPACE,   TIME,   MATTER,   MOTION,  AND  FORCE. 

simultaneously  with  the  development  of  the  conceptions 
of  Space  and  Time :  all  three  being  evolved  from  the  more 
multiplied  and  varied  impressions  of  muscular  tension  and 
objective  resistance.  Motion,  as  we  know  it,  is  thus  trace- 
able, in  common  with  the  other  ultimate  scientific  ideas,  to 
experiences  of  force. 

That  this  relative  reality  answers  to  some  absolute  real- 
ity, it  is  needful  only  for  form's  sake  to  assert.  What  has 
been  said  above,  respecting  the  Unknown  Cause  which  pro- 
duces in  us  the  effects  called  Matter,  Space,  and  Time,  will 
apply,  on  simply  changing  the  terms,  to  Motion. 

§  50.  We  come  down  then  finally  to  Force,  as  the  ulti- 
mate of  ultimates.  Though  Space,  Time,  Matter,  and  Mo- 
tion, are  apparently  all  necessary  data  of  intelligence,  yet  a 
psychological  analysis  (here  indicated  only  in  rude  outline) 
shows  us  that  these  are  either  built  up  of,  or  abstracted  from, 
experiences  of  Force.  Matter  and  Motion,  as  we  know 
them,  are  differently  conditioned  manifestations  of  Force. 
Space  and  Time,  as  we  know  them,  are  disclosed  along  with 
these  different  manifestations  of  Force  as  the  conditions 
under  which  they  are  presented.  Matter  and  Motion  are 
concretes  built  up  from  the  contents  of  various  mental 
relations;  while  Space  and  Time  are  abstracts  of  the  forms 
of  these  various  relations.  Deeper  down  than  these,  how- 
ever, are  the  primordial  experiences  of  Force,  which,  as 
occurring  in  consciousness  in  different  combinations,  sup- 
ply at  once  the  materials  whence  the  forms  of  relations  are 
generalized,  and  the  related  objects  built  up.  A  single 
impression  of  force  is  manifestly  receivable  by  a  sentient 
being  devoid  of  mental  forms:  grant  but  sensibility,  with 
no  established  power  of  thought,  and  a  force  producing 
some  nervous  change,  will  still  be  presentable  at  the  sup- 
posed seat  of  sensation.  Though  no  single  impression  of 
force  so  received,  could  itself  produce  consciousness  (which 
implies  relations  between  different  states),  yet  a  multiplica- 


SPACE,  TIME,  MATTER,  MOTION,  AND   FORCE.      173 

tion  of  such,  impressions,  differing  in  kind  and  degree, 
would  give  the  materials  for  the  establishment  of  rela- 
tions, that  is,  of  thought.  And  if  such  relations  differed 
in  their  forms  as  well  as  in  their  contents,  the  impressions  of 
such  forms  would  be  organized  simultaneously  with  the 
impressions  they  contained.  Thus  all  other  modes  of  con- 
sciousness are  derivable  from  experiences  of  Force;  but 
experiences  of  Force  are  not  derivable  from  anything  else. 
Indeed,  it  needs  but  to  remember  that  consciousness  consists 
of  changes,  to  see  that  the  ultimate  datum  of  consciousness 
must  be  that  of  which  change  is  the  manifestation;  and  that 
thus  the  force  by  which  we  ourselves  produce  changes,  and 
which  serves  to  symbolize  the  cause  of  changes  in  general, 
is  the  final  disclosure  of  analysis. 

It  is  a  truism  to  say  that  the  nature  of  this  unclecom- 
posable  element  of  our  knowledge  is  inscrutable.  If,  to  use 
an  algebraic  illustration,  we  represent  Matter,  Motion,  and 
Force,  by  the  symbols  x,  y,  and  z  ;  then,  we  may  ascertain 
the  values  of  x  and  y  in  terms  of  z  ;  but  the  value  of  z  can 
never  be  found :  z  is  the  unknown  quantity  which  must  for 
ever  remain  unknown ;  for  the  obvious  reason  that  there  is 
nothing  in  which  its  value  can  be  expressed.  It  is  within 
the  possible  reach  of  our  intelligence  to  go  on  simplifying 
the  equations  of  all  phenomena,  until  the  complex  symbols 
which  formulate  them  are  reduced  to  certain  functions  of 
this  ultimate  symbol;  but  when  we  have  done  this,  we  have 
reached  that  limit  which  eternally  divides  science  from 
nescience. 

That  this  undecomposable  mode  of  consciousness  into 
which  all  other  modes  may  be  decomposed,  cannot  be  itself 
the  Power  manifested  to  us  through  phenomena,  has  been 
already  proved  (§  18).  We  saw  that  to  assume  an  identity 
of  nature  between  the  cause  of  changes  as  it  absolutely  ex- 
ists, and  that  cause  of  change  of  which  we  are  conscious 
in  our  own  muscular  efforts,  betrays  us  into  alternative  im- 
possibilities of  thought.     Force,  as  we  know  it,  can  be  re- 


174      SPACE,   TIME,  MATTER,  MOTION,  AND  FORCE. 

garded  only  as  a  certain  conditioned  effect  of  the  Uncondi- 
tioned Cause — as  the  relative  reality  indicating  to  us  an 
Absolute  Reality  by  which  it  is  immediately  produced. 
And  here,  indeed,  we  see  even  more  clearly  than  before, 
how  inevitable  is  that  transfigured  realism  to  which  sceptical 
criticism  finally  brings  us  round.  Getting  rid  of  all  compli- 
cations, and  contemplating  pure  Force,  we  are  irresistibly 
compelled  by  the  relativity  of  our  thought,  to  vaguely  con- 
ceive some  unknown  force  as  the  correlative  of  the  known 
force.  JSToumenon  and  phenomenon  are  here  presented  in 
their  primordial  relation  as  two  sides  of  the  same  change, 
of  which  we  are  obliged  to  regard  the  last  as  no  less  real 
than  the  first. 

§  51.  In  closing  this  exposition  of  the  derivative  data 
needed  by  Philosophy  as  the  unifier  of  Science,  we  may 
properly  glance  at  their  relations  to  the  primordial  data,  set 
forth  in  the  last  chapter. 

An  Unknown  Cause  of  the  known  effects  which  we  call 
phenomena,  likenesses  and  differences  among  these  known 
effects,  and  a  segregation  of  the  effects  into  subject  and 
object — these  are  the  postulates  without  which  we  cannot 
think.  Within  each  of  the  segregated  masses  of  manifesta- 
tions, there  are  likenesses  and  differences  involving  sec- 
ondary segregations,  which  have  also  become  indispensable 
postulates.  The  vivid  manifestations  constituting  the  non- 
ego  do  not  simply  cohere,  but  their  cohesions  have  certain 
invariable  modes;  and  among  the  faint  manifestations  con- 
stituting the  ego,  which  are  products  of  the  vivid,  there 
exist  corresponding  modes  of  cohesion.  These  modes  of  co- 
hesion under  which  manifestations  are  invariably  presented, 
and  therefore  invariably  represented,  we  call,  when  contem- 
plated apart,  Space  and  Time,  and  when  contemplated  along 
with  the  manifestations  themselves,  Matter  and  Motion. 
The  ultimate  natures  of  these  modes  are  as  unknown  as  is 
the  ultimate  nature  of  that  which  is  manifested.    But  just 


SPACE,  TIME,  MATTER,  MOTION,  AND  FORCE,      175 

the  same  warrant  which  we  have  for  asserting  that  subject 
and  object  coexist,  we  have  for  asserting  that  the  vivid 
manifestations  we  call  objective,  exist  under  certain  con- 
stant conditions,  that  are  symbolized  by  these  constant  con- 
ditions among  the  manifestations  we  call  subjective. 


CHAPTEE  IV. 

THE  INDESTRUCTIBILITY   OF  MATTER. 

§  52.  Xot  because  the  truth  is  unfamiliar,  is  it  needful 
here  to  say  something  concerning  the  indestructibility  of 
Matter;  but  partly  because  the  symmetry  of  our  argument 
demands  the  enunciation  of  this  truth,  and  partly  because 
the  evidence  on  which  it  is  accepted  requires  examination. 
Could  it  be  shown,  or  could  it  with  any  rationality  be  even 
supposed,  that  Matter,  either  in  its  aggregates  or  in  its 
units,  ever  became  non-existent,  there  would  be  need  either 
to  ascertain  under  what  conditions  it  became  non-existent, 
or  else  to  confess  that  Science  and  Philosophy  are  impos- 
sible. For  if,  instead  of  having  to  deal  with  fixed  quantities 
and  weights,  we  had  to  deal  with  quantities  and  weights 
which  were  apt,  wholly  or  in  part,  to  be  annihilated,  there 
would  be  introduced  an  incalculable  element,  fatal  to  all 
positive  conclusions.  Clearly,  therefore,  the  proposition 
that  matter  is  indestructible  must  be  deliberately  consid- 
ered. 

So  far  from  being  admitted  as  a  self-evident  truth,  this 
would,  in  primitive  times,  have  been  rejected  as  a  self-evi- 
dent error.  There  was  once  universally  current,  a  notion 
that  things  could  vanish  into  absolute  nothing,  or  arise  out  of 
absolute  nothing.  If  we  analyze  early  superstitions,  or  that 
faith  in  magic  which  was  general  in  later  times  and  even 
still  survives  among  the  uncultured,  we  find  one  of  its  postu- 
lates to  be,  that  by  some  potent  spell  Matter  can  be  called 
out  of  non-entity,  and  can  be  made  non-existent.    If  men  did 

176 


THE  INDESTRUCTIBILITY  OF  MATTER.  177 

not  believe  this  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word  (which  would 
imply  that  the  process  of  creation  or  annihilation  was  clearly 
represented  in  consciousness),  they  still  believed  that  they 
believed  it ;  and  how  nearly,  in  their  confused  thoughts,  the 
one  was  equivalent  to  the  other,  is  shown  by  their  conduct. 
Nor,  indeed,  have  dark  ages  and  inferior  minds  alone  be- 
trayed this  belief.  The  current  theology,  in  its  teachings 
respecting  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  world,  is  clearly 
pervaded  by  it;  and  it  may  be  even  questioned  whether 
Shakespeare,  in  his  poetical  anticipation  of  a  time  when 
all  things  shall  disappear  and  "  leave  not  a  wrack  behind," 
was  not  under  its  influence.  The  gradual  accumula- 

tion of  experiences,  however,  and  still  more  the  organization 
of  experiences,  has  tended  slowly  to  reverse  this  conviction ; 
until  now,  the  doctrine  that  Matter  is  indestructible  has  be- 
come a  commonplace.  All  the  apparent  proofs  that  some- 
thing can  come  out  of  nothing,  a  wider  knowledge  has  one 
by  one  cancelled.  The  comet  that  is  suddenly  discovered 
in  the  heavens  and  nightly  waxes  larger,  is  proved  not  to 
be  a  newly-created  body,  but  a  body  that  was  until  lately 
beyond  the  range  of  vision.  The  cloud  which  in  the  course 
of  a  few  minutes  forms  in  the  sky,  consists  not  of  substance 
that  has  just  begun  to  be,  but  of  substance  that  previously 
existed  in  a  more  diffused  and  transparent  form.  And 
similarly  with  a  crystal  or  precipitate  in  relation  to  the  fluid 
depositing  it.  Conversely,  the  seeming  annihilations  of 
Matter  turn  out,  on  closer  observation,  to  be  only  changes  of 
state.  It  is  found  that  the  evaporated  water,  though  it  has 
become  invisible,  may  be  brought  by  condensation  to  its 
original  shape.  The  discharged  fowling-piece  gives  evi- 
dence that  though  the  gunpowder  has  disappeared,  there 
have  appeared  in  place  of  it  certain  gases,  which,  in  assuming 
a  larger  volume,  have  caused  the  explosion.  Not, 

however,  until  the  rise  of  quantitative  chemistry,  could  the 
conclusion  suggested  by  such  experiences  be  harmonized 
with  all  the  facts.    When,  having  ascertained  not  only  the 


178  THE   INDESTRUCTIBILITY  OF  MATTER, 

combinations  formed  by  various  substances,  but  also  the 
proportions  in  which  they  combine,  chemists  were  enabled 
to  account  for  the  matter  that  had  made  its  appearance  or 
become  invisible,  scepticism  was  dissipated.  And  of  the 
general  conclusion  thus  reached,  the  exact  analyses  daily 
made,  in  which  the  same  portion  of  matter  is  pursued 
through  numerous  disguises  and  finally  separated,  furnish 
never-ceasing  confirmations. 

Such  has  become  the  effect  of  this  specific  evidence, 
joined  to  that  general  evidence  which  the  continued  exist- 
ence of  familiar  objects  unceasingly  gives  us,  that  the  Inde- 
structibility of  Matter  is  now  held  by  many  to  be  a  truth 
of  which  the  negation  is  inconceivable. 

§  53.  This  last  fact  naturally  raises  the  question, 
whether  we  have  any  higher  warrant  for  this  fundamental 
belief  than  the  warrant  of  conscious  induction.  Before 
showing  that  we  have  a  higher  warrant,  some  explanations 
are  needful. 

The  consciousness  of  logical  necessity,  is  the  conscious- 
ness that  a  certain  conclusion  is  implicitly  contained  in  cer- 
tain premises  explicitly  stated.  If,  contrasting  a  young 
child  and  an  adult,  we  see  that  this  consciousness  of  logical 
necessity,  absent  from  the  one  is  present  in  the  other,  we 
are  taught  that  there  is  a  growing  up  to  the  recognition  of 
certain  necessary  truths,  merely  by  the  unfolding  of  the 
inherited  intellectual  forms  and  faculties. 

To  state  the  case  more  specifically: — Before  a  truth 
can  be  known  as  necessary,  two  conditions  must  be  fulfilled. 
There  must  be  a  mental  structure  capable  of  grasping  the 
terms  of  the  proposition  and  the  relation  alleged  between 
them;  and  there  must  be  such  definite  and  deliberate  men- 
tal representation  of  these  terms,  as  makes  possible  a  clear 
consciousness  of  this  relation.  Xon-fulfilment  of  either 
condition  may  cause  non-recognition  of  the  necessity  of  the 
truth.    Let  us  take  cases. 


THE  INDESTRUCTIBILITY  OF  MATTER.  179 

The  savage  who  cannot  count  the  fingers  on  one  hand, 
can  frame  no  definite  thought  answering  to  the  statement 
.that  7  and  5  are  12;  still  less  can  he  frame  the  conscious- 
ness that  no  other  total  is  possible. 

The  boy  adding  up  figures  inattentively,  says  to  himself 
that  7  and  5  are  11;  and  may  repeatedly  bring  out  a  wrong 
result  by  repeatedly  making  this  error. 

Neither  the  non-recognition  of  the  truth  that  7  and  5 
are  12,  which  in  the  savage  results  from  undeveloped  mental 
structure,  nor  the  assertion,  due  to  the  boy's  careless  mental 
action,  that  they  make  11,  leads  us  to  doubt  the  necessity  of 
the  relation  between  these  two  separately-existing  numbers 
and  the  sum  they  make  when  existing  together.  Nor  does 
failure  from  either  cause  to  apprehend  the  necessity  of  this 
relation,  make  us  hesitate  to  say  that  when  its  terms  are  dis- 
tinctly represented  in  thought,  its  necessity  will  be  seen; 
and  that,  apart  from  any  multiplied  experiences,  this  neces- 
sity becomes  cognizable  when  structures  and  functions  are 
so  far  developed  that  groups  of  7  and  5  and  12  can  be  in- 
tellectually grasped. 

Manifestly,  then,  there  is  a  recognition  of  necessary 
truths,  as  such,  which  accompanies  mental  evolution.  Along 
with  acquirement  of  more  complex  faculty  and  more  vivid 
imagination,  there  comes  a  power  of  perceiving  to  be  neces- 
sary truths,  what  were  before  not  recognized  as  truths  at  all. 
And  there  are  ascending  gradations  in  these  recognitions. 
A  boy  who  has  intelligence  enough  to  see  that  things 
which  are  equal  to  the  same  thing  are  equal  to  one  another, 
may  be  unable  to  see  that  ratios  which  are  severally  equal 
to  certain  other  ratios  that  are  unequal  to  each  other,  are 
themselves  unequal ;  though  to  a  more-developed  mind  this 
last  axiom  is  no  less  obviously  necessary  than  the  first. 

All  this  which  holds  of  logical  and  mathematical  truths, 
holds,  with  change  of  terms,  of  physical  truths.  There  are 
necessary  truths  in  Physics  for  the  apprehension  of  which, 
also,  a  developed  and  disciplined  intelligence  is  required; 


180  THE  INDESTRUCTIBILITY  OP  MATTER. 

and  before  such  intelligence  arises,  not  only  may  there  be 
failure  to  apprehend  the  necessity  of  them,  but  there  may 
be  vague  beliefs  in  their  contraries.  Up  to  comparatively- 
recent  times,  all  mankind  were  in  this  state  of  incapacity 
with  respect  to  physical  axioms;  and  the  mass  of  mankind 
are  so  still.  Various  popular  notions  betray  inability  to 
form  clear  ideas  of  forces  and  their  relations,  or  careless- 
ness in  thinking,  or  both.  Effects  are  expected  without 
causes  of  fit  kinds;  or  effects  extremely  disproportionate  to 
causes  are  looked  for ;  or  causes  are  supposed  to  end  without 
effects.*  But  though  many  are  incapable  of  grasping  phys- 
ical axioms,  it  no  more  follows  that  physical  axioms  are 
not  knowable  d  p riori  by  a  developed  intelligence,  than  it 
follows  that  logical  relations  are  not  necessary,  because  un- 
developed intellects  cannot  perceive  their  necessity. 

It  is  thus  with  the  notions  which  have  been  current 
respecting  the  creation  and  annihilation  of  Matter.  In  the 
first  place,  there  has  been  an  habitual  confounding  of  two 
radically-different  things — disappearance  of  Matter  from 
that  place  where  it  was  lately  perceived,  and  passage  of 
Matter  from  existence  into  non-existence.  Only  when 
there  is  reached  a  power  of  discrimination  beyond  that  pos- 
sessed by  the  uncultured,  is  there  an  avoidance  of  the  con- 
fusion between  vanishing  from  the  range  of  perception,  and 
vanishing  out  of  space  altogether;  and  until  this  confusion 
is  avoided,  the  belief  that  Matter  can  be  annihilated  readily 

*  I  knew  a  lady  who  contended  that  a  dress  folded  up  tightly,  weighed 
more  than  when  loosely  folded  up ;  and  who,  under  this  belief,  had  her  trunks 
made  large  that  she  might  diminish  the  charge  for  freight !  Another  whom  I 
know,  ascribes  the  feeling  of  lightness  which  accompanies  vigour,  to  actual 
decrease  of  weight ;  believes  that  by  stepping  gently,  she  can  press  less  upon 
the  ground ;  and,  when  cross-questioned,  asserts  that,  if  placed  in  scales,  she 
can  make  herself  lighter  by  an  act  of  will !  Various  popular  notions  betray 
like  states  of  mind — show,  in  the  undisciplined,  such  inability  to  form  ideas 
of  forces  and  their  relations,  or  such  randomness  in  thinking,  or  both,  as  in- 
capacitates them  for  grasping  physical  axioms,  and  makes  them  harbour 
numerous  delusions  respecting  physical  actions. 


THE  INDESTRUCTIBILITY   OF  MATTER.  181 

obtains  currency.  In  the  second  place,  the  currency  of  this 
belief  continues  so  long  as  there  is  not  such  power  of  intro- 
spection that  it  can  be  seen  what  happens  when  the  attempt 
is  made  to  annihilate  Matter  in  thought.  But  when,  during 
mental  evolution,  the  vague  ideas  arising  in  a  nervous 
structure  imperfectly  organized,  are  replaced  by  the  clear 
ideas  arising  in  a  definite  nervous  structure;  this  definite 
structure,  moulded  by  experience  into  correspondence  with 
external  phenomena,  makes  necessary  in  thought  the  rela- 
tions answering  to  absolute  uniformities  in  things.  Hence, 
among  others,  the  conception  of  the  Indestructibility  of 
Matter. 

For  careful  self-analysis  shows  this  to  be  a  datum  of 
consciousness.  Conceive  the  space  before  you  to  be  cleared 
of  all  bodies  save  one.  Now  imagine  the  remaining  one  not 
to  be  removed  from  its  place,  but  to  lapse  into  nothing 
while  standing  in  that  place.  You  fail.  The  space  which 
was  solid  you  cannot  conceive  becoming  empty,  save  by 
transfer  of  that  which  made  it  solid.  What 

is  termed  the  ultimate  incomprehensibility  of  Matter,  is  an 
admitted  law  of  thought.  However  small  the  bulk  to 
which  we  conceive  a  piece  of  matter  reduced,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  conceive  it  reduced  into  nothing.  While  we  can 
represent  to  ourselves  the  parts  of  the  matter  as  approxi- 
mated, we  cannot  represent  to  ourselves  the  quantity  of 
matter  as  made  less.  To  do  this  would  be  to  imagine  some 
of  the  constituent  parts  compressed  into  nothing;  which 
is  no  more  possible  than  to  imagine  compression  of  the 
whole  into  nothing.  Our  inability  to  conceive 

Matter  becoming  non-existent,  is  immediately  consequent 
on  the  nature  of  thought.  Thought  consists  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  relations.  There  can  be  no  relation  established, 
and  therefore  no  thought  framed,  when  one  of  the  related 
terms  is  absent  from  consciousness.  Hence  it  is  impossible 
to  think  of  something  becoming  nothing,  for  the  same 
reason  that  it  is  impossible  to  think  of  nothing  becoming 


182  THE  INDESTRUCTIBILITY  OF  MATTER. 

something — the  reason,  namely,  that  nothing  cannot  be- 
come an  object  of  consciousness.  The  annihilation  of  Mat- 
ter is  unthinkable  for  the  same  reason  that  the  creation  of 
Matter  is  unthinkable. 

It  must  be  added  that  no  experimental  verification  of  the 
truth  that  Matter  is  indestructible,  is  possible  without  a 
tacit  assumption  of  it.  For  all  such  verification  implies 
weighing,  and  weighing  implies  that  the  matter  forming 
the  weight  remains  the  same.  In  other  words,  the  proof 
that  certain  matter  dealt  with  in  certain  ways  is  unchanged 
in  quantity,  depends  on  the  assumption  that  other  matter, 
otherwise  dealt  with,  is  unchanged  in  quantity. 

§  54.  That,  however,  which  it  most  concerns  us  here 
to  observe,  is  the  nature  of  the  perceptions  by  which  the 
permanence  of  Matter  is  perpetually  illustrated  to  us. 
These  perceptions,  under  all  their  forms,  amount  simply  to 
this — that  the  force  which  a  given  quantity  of  matter  exer- 
cises, remains  always  the  same.  This  is  the  proof  on  which 
common  sense  and  exact  science  alike  rely.  When, 

for  example,  an  object  known  to  have  existed  years  since  is 
said  to  exist  still,  by  one  who  yesterday  saw  it,  his  assertion 
amounts  to  this — that  an  object  which  in  past  time  wrought 
on  his  consciousness  a  certain  group  of  changes,  still  exists, 
because  a  like  group  of  changes  has  been  again  wrought  on 
his  consciousness:  the  continuance  of  the  power  thus  to 
impress  him,  he  holds  to  prove  the  continuance  of  the  ob- 
ject. Even  more  clearly  do  we  see  that  force  is  our  ulti- 
mate measure  of  Matter,  in  those  cases  where  the  shape 
of  the  Matter  has  been  changed.  A  piece  of  gold  given  to 
an  artizan  to  be  worked  into  an  ornament,  and  which  when 
brought  back  appears  to  be  less,  is  placed  in  the  scales; 
and  if  it  balances  a  much  smaller  weight  than  it  did  in  its 
rough  state,  we  infer  that  much  has  been  lost  either  in 
manipulation  or  by  direct  abstraction.  Here  the  obvious 
postulate   is,   that  the   quantity   of  Matter  is   finally   de- 


THE  INDESTRUCTIBILITY  OF  MATTER.  183 

terminable  by  the  quantity  of  gravitative  force  it  mani- 
fests. And  this  is  the  kind  of  evidence  on  which 
Science  bases  its  alleged  induction  that  Matter  is  inde- 
structible. Whenever  a  piece  of  substance  lately  visible 
and  tangible,  has  been  reduced  to  an  invisible,  intangible 
state,  but  is  proved  by  the  weight  of  the  gas  into  which 
it  has  been  transformed  to  be  still  existing;  the  assump- 
tion is  that,  though  otherwise  insensible  to  us,  the  amount 
of  matter  is  the  same  if  it  still  tends  towards  the  Earth 
with  the  same  force.  Similarly,  every  case  in  which  the 
weight  of  an  element  present  in  combination  is  inferred 
from  the  known  weight  of  another  element  which  it 
neutralizes,  is  a  case  in  which  the  quantity  of  matter  is  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  the  quantity  of  chemical  force  it  exerts ; 
and  in  which  this  specific  chemical  force  is  assumed  to  be 
the  correlative  of  a  specific  gravitative  force. 

Thus,  then,  by  the  Indestructibility  of  Matter,  we  really 
mean  the  indestructibility  of  the  force  with  which  Matter 
affects  us.  As  we  become  conscious  of  Matter  only  through 
that  resistance  which  it  opposes  to  our  muscular  energy,  so 
do  we  become  conscious  of  the  permanence  of  Matter  only 
through  the  permanence  of  this  resistance;  either  as  im- 
mediately or  as  mediately  proved  to  us.  And  this  truth  is 
made  manifest  not  only  by  analysis  of  the  a  posteriori 
cognition,  but  equally  so  by  analysis  of  the  d  priori  one.* 

*  Lest  he  should  not  have  observed  it,  the  reader  must  be  warned  that  the 
terms  ud  priori  truth"  and  "necessary  truth,"  as  used  in  this  work,  are  to 
be  interpreted  not  in  the  old  sense,  as  implying  cognitions  wholly  independent 
of  experiences,  but  as  implying  cognitions  that  have  been  rendered  organic 
by  immense  accumulations  of  experiences,  received  partly  by  the  individual, 
but  mainly  by  all  ancestral  individuals  whose  nervous  systems  he  inherits. 
On  referring  to  the  Principles  of  Psychology  (%%  426-433),  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  warrant  alleged  for  one  of  these  irreversible  ultimate  convictions  is  that, 
on  the  hypothesis  of  Evolution,  it  represents  an  immeasurably-greater  accumu- 
lation of  experiences  than  can  be  acquired  by  any  single  individual. 


CHAPTEE  V. 

THE    CONTINUITY    OF    MOTION. 

§  55.  Another  general  truth  of  the  same  order  with  the 
foregoing,  must  here  be  specified.  Like  the  Indestructibil- 
ity of  Matter,  the  Continuity  of  Motion,  or,  more  strictly,  of 
that  something  which  has  Motion  for  one  of  its  sensible 
forms,  is  a  proposition  on  the  truth  of  which  depends  the 
possibility  of  exact  Science,  and  therefore  of  a  Philosophy 
which  unifies  the  results  of  exact  Science.  Motions,  visible 
and  invisible,  of  masses  and  of  molecules,  form  the  larger 
half  of  the  phenomena  to  be  interpreted;  and  if  such  mo- 
tions might  either  proceed  from  nothing  or  lapse  into  noth- 
ing, there  could  be  no  scientific  interpretation  of  them. 

This  second  fundamental  truth,  like  the  first,  is  by  no 
means  self-evident  to  primitive  men  or  to  the  uncultured 
among  ourselves.  Contrariwise,  to  undeveloped  minds  the 
opposite  seems  self-evident.  The  facts  that  a  stone  thrown 
up  soon  loses  its  ascending  motion,  and  that  after  the  blow 
its  fall  gives  to  the  Earth,  it  remains  quiescent,  apparently 
prove  that  the  principle  of  activity*  which  the  stone  mani- 
fested may  disappear  absolutely.  Accepting,  without  criti- 
cism, the  dicta  of  unaided  perception,  to  the  effect  that 
adjacent  objects  put  in  motion  soon  return  to  rest,  all  men 
once  believed,  and  most  believe  still,  that  motion  can  pass 
into  nothing;   and  ordinarily  does  so  pass.  But 

*  Throughout  this  Chapter  I  use  this  phrase,  not  with  any  metaphysical 
meaning,  but  merely  to  avoid  foregone  conclusions. 

184 


THE  CONTINUITY  OF   MOTION.  1&5 

the  establishment  of  certain  facts  having  an  opposite  impli- 
cation, led  to  inquiries  which  have  gradually  proved  these 
appearances  to  be  illusive.  The  discovery  that  the  planets 
revolve  round  the  Sun  with  undiminishing  speed,  raised 
the  suspicion  that  a  moving  body,  when  not  interfered  with, 
will  go  on  for  ever  without  change  of  velocity;  and  sug- 
gested the  question  whether  bodies  which  lose  their  motion, 
do  not  at  the  same  time  communicate  as  much  motion  to 
other  bodies.  It  was  a  familiar  fact  that  a  stone  would 
glide  further  over  a  smooth  surface,  such  as  ice,  presenting 
no  small  objects  to  which  it  could  part  with  its  motion  by 
collision,"  than  over  a  surface  strewn  with  such  small  objects; 
and  that  a  projectile  would  travel  a  far  greater  distance 
through  a  rare  medium  like  air,  than  through  a  dense 
medium  like  water.  Thus  the  primitive  notion  that  moving 
bodies  had  an  inherent  tendency  to  lose  their  motion  and 
finally  stop — a  notion  of  which  the  Greeks  did  not  get  rid, 
but  which  lasted  till  the  time  of  Galileo — began  to  give  way. 
It  was  further  shaken  by  such  experiments  as  those  of 
Hooke,  which  proved  that  the  spinning  of  a  top  continues 
long  in  proportion  as  it  is  prevented  from  communicating 
motion  to  surrounding  matter. 

To  explain  specifically  how  modern  physicists  interpret 
all  disappearances  and  diminutions  of  visible  motion,  would 
require  more  knowledge  than  I  possess  and  more  space  than 
I  can  spare.  Here  it  must  suffice  to  state,  generally,  that 
the  molar  motion  which  disappears  when  a  bell  is  struck  by 
its  clapper,  reappears  in  the  bell's  vibrations  and  in  the 
waves  of  air  they  produce;  that  when  a  moving  mass  is 
stopped  by  coming  against  a  mass  that  is  immovable,  the 
motion  which  does  not  appear  in  sound  reappears  as 
molecular  motion;  and  that,  similarly,  when  bodies  rub 
against  one  another,  the  motion  lost  by  friction  is  gained  in 
the  motion  of  molecules.  But  one  aspect  of  this  general 
truth,  as  it  is  displayed  to  us  in  the  motions  of  masses, 
we  must  carefully  contemplate;  for  otherwise  the  doc- 
14 


186  THE  CONTINUITY  OF  MOTION. 

trine  of  the  Continuity  of  Motion  will  be  entirely  mis- 
apprehended. 

§  56.  As  expressed  by  Xewton,  the  first  law  of  motion 
is  that  "  every  body  must  persevere  in  its  state  of  rest,  or  of 
uniform  motion  in  a  straight  line,  unless  it  be  compelled  to 
change  that  state  by  forces  impressed  upon  it." 

AVith  this  truth  may  be  associated  the  truth  that  a  body 
describing  a  circular  orbit  round  a  centre  which  detains  it 
by  a  tractive  force,  moves  in  that  orbit  with  undiminished 
velocity. 

The  first  of  these  abstract  truths  is  never  realized  in  the 
concrete,  and  the  second  of  them  is  but  approximately 
realized.  Uniform  motion  in  a  straight  line,  implies  the 
absence  of  a  resisting  medium;  and  it  further  implies  the 
absence  of  forces,  gravitative  or  other,  exercised  by  neigh- 
bouring masses:  conditions  never  fulfilled.  So,  too,  the 
maintenance  of  a  circular  orbit  by  any  celestial  body,  im- 
plies both  that  there  are  no  perturbing  bodies,  and  that  there 
is  a  certain  exact  adjustment  between  its  velocity  and  the 
tractive  force  of  its  primary:  neither  requirement  ever 
being  conformed  to.  In  all  actual  orbits,  sensibly  elliptical 
as  they  are,  the  velocity  is  sensibly  variable.  And  along 
with  great  eccentricity  there  goes  great  variation. 

To  the  case  of  celestial  bodies  which,  moving  in  eccen- 
tric orbits,  display  at  one  time  little  motion  and  at  another 
much  motion,  may  be  joined  the  case  of  the  pendulum. 
With  speed  now  increasing  and  now  decreasing,  the  pen- 
dulum alternates  between  extremes  at  which  motion  ceases. 

How  shall  we  so  conceive  these  allied  phenomena  as  to 
express  rightly  the  truth  common  to  them?  The  first  law 
of  motion,  nowhere  literally  fulfilled,  is  yet,  in  a  sense, 
implied  by  these  facts  which  seem  at  variance  with  it. 
Though  in  a  circular  orbit  the  direction  of  the  motion  is 
continually  being  changed,  yet  the  velocity  remains  un- 
changed.   Though  in  an  elliptical  orbit  there  is  now  accel- 


THE  CONTINUITY  OF  MOTION.  1S7 

eration  and  now  retardation,  yet  the  average  speed  is  con- 
stant through  successive  revolutions.  Though  the  pendu- 
lum comes  to  a  momentary  rest  at  the  end  of  each  swing, 
and  then  begins  a  reverse  motion;  yet  the  oscillation,  con- 
sidered as  a  whole,  is  continuous:  friction  and  atmospheric 
resistance  being  absent,  this  alternation  of  states  will  go  on 
for  ever. 

What,  then,  do  these  cases  show  us  in  common?  That 
which  vision  familiarizes  us  with  in  Motion,  and  that  which 
has  thus  been  made  the  dominant  element  in  our  conception 
of  Motion,  is  not  the  element  of  which  we  can  allege  con- 
tinuity. If  we  regard  Motion  simply  as  change  of  place; 
then  the  pendulum  shows  us  both  that  the  rate  of  this 
change  may  vary  from  instant  to  instant,  and  that,  ceasing 
at  intervals,  it  may  be  afresh  initiated. 

But  if  what  we  may  call  the  translation-element  in  Mo- 
tion is  not  continuous,  what  is  continuous?  If,  watching 
like  Galileo  a  swinging  chandelier,  we  observe,  not  its  iso- 
chronism,  but  the  recurring  reversal  of  its  swing,  we  are 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  though,  at  the  end  of  each 
swing,  the  translation  through  space  ceases,  yet  there  is 
something  which  does  not  cease ;  for  the  translation  recom- 
mences in  the  opposite  direction.  And  on  remembering 
that  when  a  violent  push  was  given  to  the  chandelier  it 
described  a  larger  arc,  and  was  a  longer  time  before  the 
resistance  of  the  air  destroyed  its  oscillations,  we  are  shown 
that  what  continues  to  exist  during  these  oscillations  is 
some  correlative  of  the  muscular  effort  which  put  the  chan- 
delier in  motion.  The  truth  forced  on  our  attention  by 
these  facts  and  inferences,  is  that  translation  through  space 
is  not  itself  an  existence  ;  and  that  hence  the  cessation  of 
Motion,  considered  simply  as  translation,  is  not  the  cessa- 
tion of  an  existence,  but  is  the  cessation  of  a  certain  sign  of 
an  existence — a  sign  occurring  under  certain  conditions. 

Still  there  remains  a  difficulty.  If  that  element  in  the 
chandelier's  motion  of  which  alone  we  can  allege  continuity, 


188  THE   CONTINUITY   OF   MOTION. 

is  the  correlative  of  the  muscular  effort  which  moved  the 
chandelier,  what  becomes  of  this  element  at  either  extreme 
of  the  oscillation?  Arrest  the  chandelier  in  the  middle  of 
its  swing,  and  it  gives  a  blow  to  the  hand — exhibits  some 
principle  of  activity  such  as  muscular  effort  can  give.  But 
touch  it  at  either  turning  point,  and  it  displays  no  such 
principle  of  activity.  This  has  disappeared  just  as  much 
as  the  translation  through  space  has  disappeared.  How, 
then,  can  it  be  alleged  that  though  the  Motion  through 
space  is  not  continuous,  the  principle  of  activity  implied 
by  the  Motion  is  continuous '. 

Unquestionably  the  facts  show  that  the  principle  of 
activity  continues  to  exist  under  some  form.  TVhen  not 
perceptible  it  must  be  latent.  How  is  it  latent?  A  clue 
to  the  answer  is  gained  on  observing  that  though  the  chan- 
delier when  seized  at  the  turning  point  of  its  swing,  gives 
no  impact  in  the  direction  of  its  late  movement,  it  forth- 
with begins  to  pull  in  the  opposite  direction;  and  on  ob- 
serving, further,  that  its  pull  is  great  when  the  swing  has 
been  made  extensive  by  a  violent  push.  Hence  the  loss  of 
visible  activity  at  the  highest  point  of  the  upward  motion,  is 
accompanied  by  the  production  of  an  invisible  activity  which 
generates  the  subsequent  motion  downwards.  To  conceive 
this  latent  activity  gained  as  an  existence  equal  to  the  per- 
ceptible activity  lost,  is  not  easy;  but  we  may  help  our- 
selves so  to  conceive  it  by  considering  cases  of  another  class. 

§  57.  AYhen  one  who  pushes  against  a  door  that  has 
stuck  fast,  produces  by  great  effort  no  motion,  but  eventually 
by  a  little  greater  effort  bursts  the  door  open,  swinging  it 
back  against  the  wall  and  tumbling  headlong  into  the  room; 
he  has  evidence  that  a  certain  muscular  strain  which  did  not 
produce  translation  of  matter  through  space,  was  yet  equiva- 
lent to  a  certain  amount  of  such  translation.  Again,  when 
a  railway-porter  gradually  stops  a  detached  carriage  by  pull- 
ing at  the  buffer,  he  shows  us  that  (supposing  friction,  etc., 


THE  CONTINUITY  OF  MOTION.  189 

absent)  the  slowly-diminished  motion  of  the  carriage  over  a 
certain  space,  is  the  equivalent  of  the  constant  backward 
strain  put  upon  the  carriage  while  it  is  travelling  through 
that  space.  Carrying  with  us  the  conception  thus  reached, 
we  will  now  consider  a  case  which  makes  it  more  definite. 

When  used  as  a  plaything  by  boys,  a  ball  fastened  to 
the  end  of  an  india-rubber  string  yields  a  clear  idea  of 
the  correlation  between  perceptible  activity  and  latent  ac- 
tivity. If,  retaining  one  end  of  the  string,  a  boy  throws  the 
ball  from  him  horizontally,  its  motion  is  resisted  by  the 
increasing  strain  on  the  string;  and  the  string,  stretched 
more  and  more  as  the  ball  recedes,  presently  brings  it  to 
rest.  Where  now  exists  the  principle  of  activity  which 
the  moving  ball  displayed?  It  exists  in  the  strained  thread 
of  india-rubber.  Under  what  form  of  changed  molecu- 
lar state  it  exists  we  need  not  ask.  It  suffices  that  the  string 
is  the  seat  of  a  tension  generated  by  the  motion  of  the 
ball,  and  equivalent  to  it.  When  the  ball  has  been  arrested, 
the  stretched  string  begins  to  generate  in  it  an  opposite  mo- 
tion; and  continues  to  accelerate  that  motion  until  the  ball 
comes  back  to  the  point  at  which  the  stretching  of  the 
string  commenced — a  point  at  which,  but  for  loss  by  atmos- 
pheric resistance  and  molecular  redistribution,  its  velocity 
would  be  equal  to  the  original  velocity.  Here  the  truth  that 
the  principle  of  activity,  alternating  between  visible  and 
invisible  modes,  does  not  cease  to  exist  when  the  translation 
through  space  ceases  to  exist,  is  readily  comprehensible; 
and  it  becomes  easy  to  understand  the  corollary  that  at  each 
point  in  the  path  of  the  ball,  the  quantity  of  its  perceptible 
activity,  plus  the  quantity  which  is  latent  in  the  stretched 
string,  yield  a  constant  sum. 

Aided  by  this  illustration  we  can,  in  a  general  way,  con- 
ceive wdiat  happens  between  bodies  connected  with  one 
another,  not  by  a  stretched  string,  but  by  a  traction  exer- 
cised through  what  seems  empty  space.  It  matters  not 
to  our  general  conception  that  the  intensity  of  this  traction 


190  THE  CONTINUITY  OF  MOTION. 

varies  in  a  totally-different  manner:  decreasing  as  the 
square  of  the  distance  increases,  but  being  practically  con- 
stant for  terrestrial  distances.  These  difference's  being  rec- 
ognized, there  is  nevertheless  to  be  recognized  a  truth  com- 
mon to  both  cases.  The  weight  of  something  held  in  the 
hand  shows  that  there  exists  between  one  body  in  space 
and  another,  a  strain :  this  downward  pull,  ascribed  to  grav- 
ity, affects  the  hand  as  it  might  be  affected  by  a  stretched 
elastic  string.  Hence,  when  a  body  projected  upwards  and 
gradually  retarded  by  gravity,  finally  stops,  we  must  re- 
gard the  principle  of  activity  manifested  during  its  upward 
motion  but  disappearing  at  its  turning-point,  as  having  be- 
come latent  in  the  strain  between  it  and  the  Earth — a  strain 
of  which  the  quantity  is  to  be  conceived  as  the  product  of  its 
intensity  and  the  distance  through  which  it  acts.  Carrying 
a  step  further  our  illustration  of  the  stretched  string,  will 
elucidate  this.  To  simulate  the  action  of  gravity  at  terres- 
trial distances,  let  us  imagine  that  when  the  attached  moving 
body  has  stretched  the  elastic  string  to  its  limit,  say  at  the 
distance  of  ten  feet,  a  second  like  string  could  instantly  be 
tied  to  the  end  of  the  first  and  to  the  body,  which,  continuing 
its  course,  stretched  this  second  string  to  an  equal  length, 
and  so  on  with  a  succession  of  such  strings,  till  the  body 
was  arrested.  Then,  manifestly,  the  quantity  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  activity  which  the  moving  body  had  displayed, 
but  which  has  now  become  latent  in  the  series  of  stretched 
strings,  is  measured  by  the  number  of  such  strings  simi- 
larly stretched — the  number  of  feet  through  which  this 
constant  strain  has  been  encountered,  and  over  which  it  still 
extends.  Xow  though  we  cannot  conceive  the  tractive 
force  of  gravity  to  be  exercised  in  a  like  way — though  the 
gravitative  action,  utterly  unknown  in  nature,  is  probably 
a  resultant  of  actions  pervading  the  ethereal  medium;  yet 
the  above  analogy  suggests  the  belief  that  the  principle 
of  activity  in  a  moving  body  arrested  by  gravity,  has  not 
ceased  to  exist,  but  has  become  so  much  imperceptible  or 


THE  CONTINUITY  OF   MOTION.  191 

latent  activity  in  the  medium  occupying  space,  and  that 
when  the  body  falls,  this  is  re-transformed  into  its  equiva- 
lent of  perceptible  activity.  If  we  conceive  the  process  at 
all,  we  must  conceive  it  thus:  otherwise,  we  have  to  con- 
ceive that  sl power  is  changed  into  a  space-relation,  and  this 
is  inconceivable. 

Here,  then,  is  the  solution  of  the  difficulty.  The  space- 
element  of  Motion  is  not  in  itself  a  thing.  Change  of  posi- 
tion is  not  an  existence,  but  the  manifestation  of  an  exist- 
ence. This  existence  may  cease  to  display  itself  as  transla- 
tion; but  it  can  do  so  only  by  displaying  itself  as  strain. 
And  this  principle  of  activity,  now  shown  by  translation, 
now  by  strain,  and  often  by  the  two  together,  is  alone  that 
which  in  Motion  we  can  call  continuous. 

§  58.  What  is  this  principle  of  activity?  Vision  gives 
us  no  idea  of  it.  If  by  a  mirror  we  cast  the  image  of  an 
illuminated  object  on  to  a  dark  wall,  and  then  suddenly 
changing  the  attitude  of  the  mirror,  make  the  reflected 
image  pass  from  side  to  side,  the  image,  if  recognized  as 
such,  does  not  raise  the  thought  that  there  is  present  in  it 
a  principle  of  activity.  Before  we  can  conceive  the  presence 
of  this,  we  must  regard  the  impression  yielded  through 
our  eyes  as  symbolizing  something  tangible — something 
which  offers  resistance.  Hence  the  principle  of  activity 
as  known  by  sight,  is  inferential:  visible  translation  sug- 
gests by  association  the  presence  of  a  principle  of  activity 
which  would  be  appreciable  by  our  skin  and  muscles  did 
we  lay  hold  of  the  body.  Evidently,  then,  this  principle 
of  activity  which  Motion  shows  us,  is  the  objective  corre- 
late of  our  subjective  sense  of  effort.  By  pushing  and  pull- 
ing, we  get  feelings  which,  generalized  and  abstracted,  yield 
our  ideas  of  resistance  and  tension.  Now  displayed  by 
changing  position  and  now  by  unchanging  strain,  this  prin- 
ciple of  activity  is  ultimately  conceived  by  us  under  the 
single  form  of  its  equivalent  muscular  effort.     So  that  the 


192  THE  CONTINUITY  OF  MOTION. 

continuity  of  Motion,  as  well  as  the  indestructibility  of 
Matter,  is  really  known  to  us  in  terms  of  Force. 

§  59.  And  now  we  reach  the  essential  truth  to  be  here 
especially  noted.  All  proofs  of  the  Continuity  of  Motion  in- 
volve the  postulate  that  the  quantity  of  force  is  constant.  Ob- 
serve what  results  when  we  analyze  the  reasonings  by  which 
the  Continuity  of  Motion,  as  here  understood,  is  shown. 

A  particular  planet  can  be  identified  only  by  its  con- 
stant power  to  affect  our  visual  organs  in  a  special  way. 
Further,  such  planet  has  not  been  seen  to  move  by  the  astro- 
nomical observer;  but  its  motion  is  inferred  from  a  com- 
parison of  its  present  position  with  the  position  it  before 
occupied.  If  rigorously  examined,  this  comparison  proves 
to  be  a  comparison  between  the  different  impressions  pro- 
duced on  him  by  the  different  adjustments  of  his  observing 
instruments.  And,  manifestly,  the  validity  of  all  the  in- 
ferences drawn  from  these  likenesses  and  unlikenesses, 
depends  on  the  truth  of  the  assumption  that  these  masses 
of  matter,  celestial  and  terrestrial,  will  continue  to  affect 
his  senses  in  exactly  the  same  ways  under  the  same  con- 
ditions; and  that  no  changes  in  their  powers  of  affecting 
him  can  have  arisen  without  force  having  been  expended 
in  working  those  changes.  Going  a  step  further 

back,  it  turns  out  that  difference  in  the  adjustment  of  his 
observing  instrument,  and  by  implication  in  the  planet,  is 
meaningless  until  shown  to  correspond  with  a  certain  calcu- 
lated position  which  the  planet  must  occupy,  supposing  that 
no  motion  has  been  lost.  And  if,  finally,  we  examine  the 
implied  calculation,  we  find  that  it  takes  into  account  those 
accelerations  and  retardations  which  ellipticity  of  the  orbit 
involves,  as  well  as  those  variations  of  velocity  caused  by 
adjacent  planets — we  find,  that  is,  that  the  motion  is  con- 
cluded to  be  indestructible  not  from  the  uniform  velocity 
of  the  planet,  but  from  the  constant  quantity  of  motion 
exhibited  when  allowance  is  made  for  the  motion  communi- 


THE  CONTINUITY  OF  MOTION.  193 

cated  to,  or  received  from,  other  celestial  bodies.  And 
when  we  ask  how  this  communicated  motion  is  estimated, 
we  discover  that  the  estimate  is  based  on  certain  laws  of 
force;  which  laws,  one  and  all,  embody  the  postulate  that 
force  cannot  be  destroyed.  Without  the  axiom  that  action 
and  re-action  are  equal  and  opposite,  astronomy  could  not 
make  its  exact  predictions. 

Similarly  with  the  a  priori  conclusion  that  Motion  is 
continuous.  That  which  defies  suppression  in  thought,  is 
really  the  force  which  the  motion  indicates.  We  can  imag- 
ine retardation  to  result  from  the  action  of  external  bodies. 
But  to  imagine  this,  is  not  possible  without  imagining  ab- 
straction of  the  force  implied  by  the  motion.  We  are 
obliged  to  conceive  this  force  as  impressed  in  the  shape  of 
reaction  on  the  bodies  that  cause  the  arrest.  And  the  mo- 
tion communicated  to  them,  we  are  compelled  to  regard, 
not  as  directly  communicated,  but  as  a  product  of  the  com- 
municated force.  We  can  mentally  diminish  the  velocity 
or  space-element  of  motion,  by  diffusing  the  momentum 
or  force-element  over  a  larger  mass  of  matter;  but  the 
quantity  of  this  force-element,  which  we  regard  as  the  cause 
of  the  motion,  is  unchangeable  in  thought.* 

*  It  is  needful  to  state  that  this  exposition  differs  in  its  point  of  view 
from  the  expositions  ordinarily  given;  and  that  some  of  the  words  employed, 
such  as  strain,  have  somewhat  larger  implications.  Unable  to  learn  anything 
about  the  nature  of  Force,  physicists  have,  of  late  years,  formulated  ultimate 
physical  truths  in  such  ways  as  often  tacitly  to  exclude  the  consciousness  of 
Force :  conceiving  cause,  as  Hume  proposed,  in  terms  of  antecedence  and 
sequence  only.  "  Potential  energy,"  for  example,  is  defined  as  constituted  by 
such  relations  in  space  as  permit  masses  to  generate  in  one  another  certain 
motions,  but  as  being  in  itself  nothing.  While  this  mode  of  conceiving  the 
phenomena  suffices  for  physical  inquiries,  it  does  not  suffice  for  the  purposes 
of  philosophy.  After  referring  to  the  Principles  of  Psychology,  §§  347-350, 
the  reader  will  understand  what  I  mean  by  saying  that  since  our  ideas  of 
Body,  Space,  Motion,  are  derived  from  our  ideas  of  muscular  tension,  which 
are  the  ultimate  symbols  into  which  all  our  other  mental  symbols  are  inter- 
pretable,  to  formulate  phenomena  in  the  proximate  terms  of  Body,  Space, 
Motion,  while  discharging  from  the  concepts  the  consciousness  of  Force,  is  to 
acknowledge  the  superstructure  while  ignoring  the  foundation. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


§  60.  In  the  foregoing  two  chapters,  manifestations  of 
force  of  two  fundamentally-different  classes  have  been  dealt 
with — the  force  by  which  matter  demonstrates  itself  to  ns 
as  existing,  and  the  force  by  which  it  demonstrates  itself 
to  us  as  acting. 

Body  is  distinguishable  from  space  by  its  power  of 
affecting  our  senses,  and,  in  the  last  resort,  by  its  opposition 
to  our  efforts.  We  can  conceive  of  body  only  by  joining  in 
thought  extension  and  resistance:  take  away  resistance, 
and  there  remains  only  space.  In  what  way  this  force 
which  produces  space-occupancy  is  conditioned  we  do  not 

*  Some  explanation  of  this  title  seems  needful.  In  the  text  itself  are 
given  the  reasons  for  using  the  word  "  force  "  instead  of  the  word  "  energy ; " 
and  here  I  must  say  why  I  think  "  persistence "  preferable  to  "  conserva- 
tion." Some  two  years  ago  (this  was  written  in  1861)  I  expressed  to  my 
friend  Prof.  Huxley,  my  dissatisfaction  with  the  (then)  current  expression — 
"  Conservation  of  Force :  "  assigning  as  reasons,  first,  that  the  word  "  con- 
servation "  implies  a  conserver  and  an  act  of  conserving ;  and,  second,  that 
it  does  not  imply  the  existence  of  the  force  before  the  particular  manifesta- 
tion of  it  which  is  contemplated.  And  I  may  now  add,  as  a  further  fault, 
the  tacit  assumption  that,  without  some  act  of  conservation,  force  would 
disappear.  All  these  implications  are  at  variance  with  the  conception  to  be 
conveyed.  In  place  of  "conservation"  Prof.  Huxley  suggested  persistence. 
Thi«  meets  most  of  the  objections;  and  though  it  maybe  urged  against  it 
that  it  docs  not  directly  imply  pre  existence  of  the  force  at  any  time  mani- 
fested, yet  no  other  word  less  faulty  in  this  respect  can  be  found.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  a  word  specially  coined  for  the  purpose,  it  seems  the  best;  and  as 
such  I  adopt  it. 

194 


THE  PERSISTENCE  OF  FORCE.  195 

know.  The  mode  of  force  which  is  revealed  to  us  only  by 
opposition  to  our  own  powers,  may  be  in  essence  the  same 
with  the  mode  of  force  which  reveals  itself  by  the  changes  it 
initiates  in  our  consciousness.  That  the  space  a  body  occu- 
pies is  in  part  determined  by  the  degree  of  that  activity  pos- 
sessed by  its  molecules  which  we  call  heat,  is  a  familiar 
truth.  Moreover,  we  know  that  such  molecular  re-arrange- 
ment as  occurs  in  the  change  of  water  into  ice,  is  accom- 
panied by  an  evolution  of  force  which  may  burst  the  con- 
taining vessel  and  give  motion  to  the  fragments.  Never- 
theless, the  forms  of  our  experience  oblige  us  to  distinguish 
between  two  modes  of  force ;  the  one  not  a  worker  of  change 
and  the  other  a  worker  of  change,  actual  or  potential.  The 
first  of  these — the  space-occupying  kind  of  force — has  no 
specific  name. 

For  the  second  kind  of  force,  distinguishable  as  that  by 
which  change  is  either  being  caused  or  will  be  caused  if 
counterbalancing  forces  are  overcome,  the  specific  name 
now  accepted  is  "  Energy.'7  That  which  in  the  last  chapter 
was  spoken  of  as  perceptible  activity,  is  called  by  physicists, 
"  actual  energy";  and  that  which  was  called  latent  activ- 
ity, is  called  "  potential  energy.'7  While  including  the 
mode  of  activity  shown  in  molar  motion,  Energy  includes 
also  the  several  modes  of  activity  into  which  molar  motion  is 
transformable — heat,  light,  etc.  It  is  the  common  name  for 
the  power  shown  alike  in  the  movements  of  masses  and  in 
the  movements  of  molecules.  To  our  perceptions  this  sec- 
ond kind  of  force  differs  from  the  first  kind  as  being  not 
intrinsic  but  extrinsic. 

In  aggregated  matter  as  presented  to  sight  and  touch, 
this  antithesis  is,  as  above  implied,  much  obscured.  Espe- 
cially in  a  compound  substance,  both  the  potential  energy 
locked  up  in  the  chemically-combined  molecules,  and  the 
actual  energy  made  perceptible  to  us  as  heat,  complicate 
the  manifestations  of  intrinsic  force  by  the  manifestations 
of  extrinsic  force.    But  the  antithesis  here  partially  hidden, 


196  THE  PERSISTENCE  OF  FORCE. 

is  clearly  seen  on  reducing  the  data  to  their  lowest  terms 
— a  unit  of  matter,  or  atom,  and  its  motion.  The  force  by 
which  it  exists  is  passive  but  independent;  while  the  force 
by  which  it  moves  is  active  but  dependent  on  its  past  and 
present  relations  to  other  atoms.  These  two  cannot  be  iden- 
tified in  our  thoughts.  For  as  it  is  impossible  to  think  of 
motion  without  something  that  moves;  so  it  is  impossible 
to  think  of  energy  without  something  possessing  the 
energy. 

While  recognizing  this  fundamental  distinction  be- 
tween that  intrinsic  force  by  which  body  manifests  itself  as 
occuoying  space,  and  that  extrinsic  force  distinguished  as 
energy;  I  here  treat  of  them  together  as  being  alike  per- 
sistent. And  I  thus  treat  of  them  together  partly  for  the 
reason  that,  in  our  consciousness  of  them,  there  is  the  same 
essential  element.  The  sense  of  effort  is  our  subjective 
symbol  for  objective  force  in  general,  passive  and  active. 
Power  of  neutralizing  that  which  we  know  as  our  own 
muscular  strain,  is  the  ultimate  element  in  our  idea  of  body 
as  distinguished  from  space;  and  any  energy  which  we  can 
give  to  body,  or  receive  from  it,  is  thought  of  as  equal  to  a 
certain  amount  of  muscular  strain.  The  two  conscious- 
nesses differ  essentially  in  this,  that  the  feeling  of  effort 
common  to  the  two  is  in  the  last  case  joined  with  conscious- 
ness of  change  of  position,  but  in  the  first  case  is  not* 

*  In  respect  to  the  fundamental  distinction  here  made  between  the  space- 
occupying;  kind  of  force,  and  the  kind  of  force  shown  by  various  modes  of 
activity,  I  am,  as  in  the  last  chapter,  at  issue  with  some  of  my  scientific 
friends.  They  do  not  admit  that  the  conception  of  force  is  involved  in  the 
conception  of  a  unit  of  matter.  From  the  psychological  point  of  view,  how- 
ever,  Matter,  in  all  its  properties,  is  the  unknown  cause  of  the  sensations  it 
produces  in  us ;  of  which  the  one  which  remains  when  all  the  others  are 
absent,  is  resistance  to  our  efforts — a  resistance  "we  are  obliged  tc  symbolize 
as  the  equivalent  of  the  muscular  force  it  opposes.  In  imagining  a  unit  of 
matter  we  may  not  ignore  this  symbol,  by  which  alone  a  unit  of  matter  can 
be  figured  in  thought  as  an  existence.  It  is  not  allowable  to  speak  as  though 
there  remained  a  conception  of  an  existence  when  that  conception  has  been 
eviscerated — deprived  of  the  element  of  thought  by  which  it  is  distinguished 


THE   PERSISTENCE  OF  FORCE.  197 

There  is,  however,  a  further  and  more  important  reason 
for  here  dealing  with  the  truth  that  Force  under  each  of 
these  forms  persists.     We  have  to  examine  its  warrant. 

§  61.  At  the  risk  of  trying  the  reader's  patience,  we 
must  reconsider  the  reasoning  through  which  the  indestruc- 
tibility of  Matter  and  the  continuity  of  Motion  are  estab- 
lished, that  we  may  see  how  impossible  it  is  to  arrive  by 
parallel  reasoning  at  the  Persistence  of  Force. 

In  all  three  cases  the  question  is  one  of  quantity: — does 
the  Matter,  or  Motion,  or  Force,  ever  diminish  in  quantity? 
Quantitative  science  implies  measurement;  and  measure- 
ment implies  a  unit  of  measure.  The  units  of  measure 
from  which  all  others  of  any  exactness  are  derived,  are 
units  of  linear  extension.  Our  units  of  linear  extension  are 
the  lengths  of  masses  of  matter,  or  the  spaces  between 
marks  made  on  the  masses ;  and  we  assume  these  lengths,  or 
these  spaces  between  marks,  to  remain  unchanged  while  the 
temperature  is  unchanged.  From  the  standard-measure  pre- 
served at  Westminster,  are  derived  the  measures  for  trigo- 
nometrical surveys,  for  geodesy,  the  measurement  of  terres- 
trial arcs,  and  the  calculations  of  astronomical  distances, 
dimensions,  etc.,  and  therefore  for  Astronomy  at  large. 
Were  these  units  of  length,  original  and  derived,  irregu- 
larly variable,  there  could  be  no  celestial  dynamics;  nor  any 
of  that  verification  yielded  by  it  of  the  constancy  of  the 
celestial  masses  or  of  their  energies.  Hence,  persistence 
of  the  space-occupying  species  of  force  cannot  be  proved; 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  tacitly  assumed  in  every  experi- 
ment or  observation  by  which  it  is  proposed  to  prove 
it.  The  like  holds  of  the  force  distinguished  as 

energy.  The  endeavour  to  establish  this  by  measurement, 
takes  for  granted  both  the  persistence  of  the  intrinsic  force 

from  empty  space.  Divest  the  conceived  unit  of  matter  of  the  objective 
correlate  to  our  subjective  sense  of  effort,  and  the  entire  fabric  of  physical 
conceptions  disappears. 


198  THE  PERSISTENCE   OF   FORCE. 

by  which  body  manifests  itself  as  existing  and  the  persist- 
ence of  the  extrinsic  force  by  which  body  acts.  Tor  it  is 
from  these  equal  units  of  linear  extension,  through  the 
medium  of  the  equal-armed  lever  or  scales,  that  Ave  derive 
our  equal  units  of  weight,  or  gravitative  force;  and  only  by 
means  of  these  can  we  make  those  quantitative  comparisons 
by  which  the  truths  of  exact  science  are  reached.  Through- 
out the  investigations  leading  the  chemist  to  the  conclusion 
that  of  the  carbon  which  has  disappeared  during  combustion, 
no  portion  has  been  lost,  what  is  his  repeatedly-assigned 
proof?  That  afforded  by  the  scales.  In  what  terms  is  the 
verdict  of  the  scales  given?  In  grains — in  units  of  weight 
— in  units  of  gravitative  force.  And  what  is  the  total  con- 
tent of  the  verdict  ?  That  as  many  units  of  gravitative  force 
as  the  carbon  exhibited  at  first,  it  exhibits  still.  The  valid- 
ity of  the  inference,  then,  depends  entirely  upon  the  con- 
stancy of  the  units  of  force.  If  the  force  with  which  the 
portion  of  metal  called  a  grain-weight,  tends  towards  the 
Earth,  has  varied,  the  inference  that  matter  is  indestructi- 
ble is  vicious.  Everything  turns  on  the  truth  of  the  as- 
sumption that  the  gravitation  of  the  weights  is  persist- 
ent; and  of  this  no  proof  is  assigned,  or  can  be  as- 
signed. In  the  reasonings  of  the  astronomer 
there  is  a  like  implication;  from  which  we  may  draw  the 
like  conclusion.  Xo  problem  in  celestial  physics  can  be 
solved  without  the  assumption  of  some  unit -of  force.  This 
unit  need  not  be,  like  a  pound  or  a  ton,  one  of  which  we  can 
take  direct  cognizance.  It  is  requisite  only  that  the  mutual 
attraction  which  some  two  of  the  bodies  concerned  exercise 
at  a  given  distance,  should  be  taken  as  one ;  so  that  the  other 
attractions  with  which  the  problem  deals,  may  be  expressed 
in  terms  of  this  one.  Such  unit  being  assumed,  the  motions 
which  the  respective  masses  will  generate  in  each  other  in 
a  given  time,  are  calculated;  and  compounding  these  with 
the  motions  they  already  have,  their  places  at  the  end  of  that 
time  are  predicted.     The  prediction  is  verified  by  observa- 


THE   PERSISTENCE   OF   FORCE.  199 

tion.  From  this,  either  of  two  inferences  may  be  drawn. 
Assuming  the  masses  to  be  unchanged,  their  energies,  ac- 
tual and  potential,  may  be  proved  to  be  undiminished;  or 
assuming  their  energies  to  be  undiminished,  the  masses 
may  be  proved  unchanged.  But  the  validity  of  one 
or  other  inference,  depends  wholly  on  the  truth  of  the  as- 
sumption that  the  unit  of  force  is  unchanged.  Let  it  be  sup- 
posed that  the  gravitation  of  the  two  bodies  towards  each 
other  at  the  given  distance,  has  varied,  and  the  conclusions 
drawn  are  no  longer  true.  Nor  is  it  only  in  their 

concrete  data  that  the  reasonings  of  terrestrial  and  celestial 
physics  assume  the  Persistence  of  Force.  The  equality  of 
action  and  reaction  is  taken  for  granted  from  beginning 
to  end  of  either  argument ;  and  to  assert  that  action  and  re- 
action are  equal  and  opposite,  is  to  assert  that  Force  is  per- 
sistent. The  allegation  really  amounts  to  this,  that  there 
cannot  be  an  isolated  force  beginning  and  ending  in  noth- 
ing; but  that  any  force  manifested,  implies  an  equal  ante- 
cedent force  from  which  it  is  derived,  and  against  which  it  is 
a  reaction. 

We  might  indeed  be  certain,  even  in  the  absence  of  any 
such  analysis  as  the  foregoing,  that  there  must  exist  some 
principle  which,  as  being  the  basis  of  science,  cannot  be 
established  by  science.  All  reasoned-out  conclusions  what- 
ever must  rest  on  some  postulate.  As  before  shown  (§  23), 
we  cannot  go  on  merging  derivative  truths  in  those  wider 
and  wider  truths  from  which  they  are  derived,  without 
reaching  at  last  a  widest  truth  which  can  be  merged  in  no 
other,  or  derived  from  no  other.  And  whoever  contem- 
plates the  relation  in  which  it  stands  to  the  truths  of  science 
in  general,  will  see  that  this  truth  transcending  demonstra- 
tion is  the  Persistence  of  Force. 

§  62.  But  now  what  is  the  force  of  which  we  predi- 
cate persistence?  It  is  not  the  force  we  are  immediately 
conscious  of  in  our  own  muscular  efforts;  for  this  does 


200  THE  PERSISTENCE  OF  FORCE. 

not  persist.  As  soon  as  an  outstretched  limb  is  relaxed, 
the  sense  of  tension  disappears.  True,  we  assert  that  in  the 
stone  thrown  or  in  the  weight  lifted,  is  exhibited  the  effect 
of  this  muscular  tension;  and  that  the  force  which  has 
ceased  to  be  present  in  our  consciousness,  exists  elsewhere. 
But  it  does  not  exist  elsewhere  under  any  form  cognizable 
by  us.  In  §  18  we  saw  that  though,  on  raising  an  object 
from  the  ground,  we  are  obliged  to  think  of  its  down- 
ward pull  as  equal  and  opposite  to  our  upward  pull;  and 
though  it  is  impossible  to  represent  these  as  equal  without 
representing  them  as  like  in  kind;  yet,  since  their  likeness 
in  kind  would  imply  in  the  object  a  sensation  of  muscular 
tension,  which  cannot  be  ascribed  to  it,  we  are  compelled  to 
admit  that  force  as  it  exists  out  of  our  consciousness,  is  not 
force  as  we  know  it.  Hence  the  force  of  which  we  assert 
persistence  is  that  Absolute  Force  of  which  we  are  indefi- 
nitely conscious  as  the  necessary  correlate  of  the  force  we 
know.  By  the  Persistence  of  Force,  we  really  mean  the 
persistence  of  some  Cause  which  transcends  our  knowl- 
edge and  conception.  In  asserting  it  we  assert  an  Uncon- 
ditioned Reality,  without  beginning  or  end. 

Thus,  quite  unexpectedly,  we  come  down  once  more  to 
that  ultimate  truth  in  which,  as  we  saw,  Religion  and  Sci- 
ence coalesce.  On  examining  the  data  underlying  a  rational 
Theory  of  Things,  we  find  them  all  at  last  resolvable  into 
that  datum  without  which  consciousness  was  shown  to  be 
impossible — the  continued  existence  of  an  Unknowable  as 
the  necessary  correlative  of  the  Knowable. 

The  sole  truth  which  transcends  experience  by  underly- 
ing it,  is  thus  the  Persistence  of  Force.  This  being  the  basis 
of  experience,  must  be  the  basis  of  any  scientific  organiza- 
tion of  experiences.  To  this  an  ultimate  analysis  brings 
us  down ;  and  on  this  a  rational  synthesis  must  build  up. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  PERSISTENCE  OF  RELATIONS  AMONG  FORCES. 

§  63.  The  first  deduction  to  be  drawn  from  the  ultimate 
universal  truth  that  force  persists,  is  that  the  relations 
among  forces  persist.  Supposing  a  given  manifestation  of 
force,  under  a  given  form  and  given  conditions,  be  either 
preceded  by  or  succeeded  by  some  other  manifestation,  it 
must,  in  all  cases  where  the  form  and  conditions  are  the 
same,  be  preceded  by  or  succeeded  by  such  other  manifesta- 
tion. Every  antecedent  mode  of  the  Unknowable  must 
have  an  invariable  connexion,  quantitative  and  qualitative, 
with  that  mode  of  the  Unknowable  which  we  call  its  con- 
sequent. 

For  to  say  otherwise  is  to  deny  the  persistence  of  force. 
If  in  any  two  cases  there  is  exact  likeness  not  only  between 
those  most  conspicuous  antecedents  which  we  distinguish 
as  the  causes,  but  also  between  those  accompanying  ante- 
cedents which  we  call  the  conditions,  we  cannot  affirm  that 
the  effects  will  differ,  without  affirming  either  that  some 
force  has  come  into  existence  or  that  some  force  has  ceased 
to  exist.  If  the  cooperative  forces  in  the  one  case  are 
equal  to  those  in  the  other,  each  to  each,  in  distribution  and 
amount;  then  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  the  product  of 
their  joint  action  in  the  one  case  as  unlike  that  in  the  other, 
without  conceiving  one  or  more  of  the  forces  to  have  in- 
creased or  diminished  in  quantity;  and  this  is  conceiving 
that  force  is  not  persistent. 

15  201 


202  THE   PERSISTENCE  OF  RELATIONS  AMONG  FORCES. 

To  impress  the  truth  here  enunciated  under  its  most 
abstract  form,  some  illustrations  will  be  desirable. 

§  64.  Let  two  equal  bullets  be  projected  with  equal 
forces;  then,  in  equal  times,  equal  distances  must  be  trav- 
elled by  them.  The  assertion  that  one  of  them  will  describe 
an  assigned  space  sooner  than  the  other,  though  their 
initial  momenta  were  alike  and  they  have  been  equally 
resisted  (for  if  they  are  unequally  resisted  the  antecedents 
differ)  is  an  assertion  that  equal  quantities  of  force  have  not 
done  equal  amounts  of  work;  and  this  cannot  be  thought 
without  thinking  that  some  force  has  disappeared  into  noth- 
ing or  arisen  out  of  nothing.  Assume,  further,  that 
during  its  night,  one  of  them  has  been  drawn  by  the  Earth 
a  certain  number  of  inches  out  of  its  original  line  of  move- 
ment ;  then  the  other,  which  has  moved  the  same  distance  in 
the  same  time,  must  have  fallen  just  as  far  towards  the 
Earth.  jSTo  other  result  can  be  imagined  without  imagining 
that  equal  attractions  acting  for  equal  times,  have  pro- 
duced unequal  effects,  which  involves  the  inconceivable 
proposition  that  some  action  has  been  created  or  anni- 
hilated. Again,  one  of  the  bullets  having  pene- 
trated the  target  to  a  certain  depth,  penetration  by  the 
other  bullet  to  a  smaller  depth,  unless  caused  by  altered 
shape  of  the  bullet  or  greater  local  density  in  the  target, 
cannot  be  mentally  represented.  Such  a  modification  of 
the  consequents  without  modification  of  the  antecedents, 
is  thinkable  only  through  the  impossible  thought  that 
something  has  become  nothing  or  nothing  has  become  some- 
thing. 

It  is  thus  not  with  sequences  only,  but  also  with  simul- 
taneous changes  and  permanent  co-existences.  Given 
charges  of  powder  alike  in  quantity  and  quality,  fired  from 
barrels  of  the  same  structure,  and  propelling  bullets  of 
equal  weights,  sizes,  and  forms,  similarly  rammed  down; 
and  it  is  a  necessary  inference  that  the  concomitant  actions 


THE  RESISTENCE  OF  RELATIONS  AMONG  FORCES.  203 

which  make  up  the  explosion,  will  bear  to  one  another  like 
relations  of  quantity  and  quality  in  the  two  cases.  The  pro- 
portions among  the  different  products  of  combustion  will  be 
equal.  The  several  amounts  of  force  taken  up  in  giving 
momentum  to  the  bullet,  heat  to  the  gases,  and  sound  on 
their  escape,  will  preserve  the  same  ratios.  The  quantities 
of  light  and  smoke  in  the  one  case  will  be  what  they  are  in 
the  other;  and  the  two  recoils  will  be  alike.  For  no  dif- 
ference of  proportion,  or  no  difference  of  relation,  among 
these  concurrent  phenomena  can  be  imagined  as  arising, 
without  imagining  such  difference  of  proportion  or  relation 
as  arising  uncaused — as  arising  by  the  creation  or  annihila- 
tion of  force. 

That  which  here  holds  between  two  cases  must  hold 
among  any  number  of  cases;  and  that  which  here  holds 
between  antecedents  and  consequents  that  are  comparatively 
simple,  must  hold  however  involved  the  antecedents  be- 
come and  however  involved  the  consequents  become. 

§  65.  Thus  what  we  call  uniformity  of  law,  resolvable  as 
we  find  it  into  the  persistence  of  relations  among  forces,  is 
an  immediate  corollary  from  the  persistence  of  force.  The 
general  conclusion  that  there  exist  constant  connexions 
among  phenomena,  ordinarily  regarded  as  an  inductive 
conclusion  only,  is  really  a  conclusion  deducible  from  the 
ultimate  datum  of  consciousness.  Though,  in  saying  this, 
we  seem  to  be  illegitimately  inferring  that  what  is  true  of 
the  ego  is  also  true  of  the  non-ego  ;  yet  here  this  inference  is 
legitimate.  For  that  which  we  thus  predicate  as  holding  in 
common  of  ego  and  non-ego,  is  that  which  they  have  in 
common  as  being  both  existences.  The  assertion  of  an  exist- 
ence beyond  consciousness,  is  itself  an  assertion  that  there  is 
something  beyond  consciousness  which  persists;  for  persist- 
ence is  nothing  more  than  continued  existence,  and  existence 
cannot  be  thought  of  as  other  than  continued.  And  we 
cannot  assert  persistence  of  this  something  beyond  con- 


204  THE  PERSISTENCE  OF  RELATIONS  AMONG  FORCES. 

sciousness,  without  asserting  that  the  relations  among  its 
manifestations  are  persistent. 

That  uniformity  of  law  thus  follows  inevitably  from  the 
persistence  of  force,  will  become  more  and  more  clear  as  we 
advance.  The  next  chapter  will  indirectly  supply  abundant 
illustrations  of  it. 


CHAPTEE  VIII. 

THE  TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE  OF  FORCES. 

§  66.  When,  to  the  unaided  senses,  Science  began  to 
add  supplementary  senses  in  the  shape  of  measuring  instru- 
ments, men  began  to  perceive  various  phenomena  which  eyes 
and  fingers  could  not  distinguish.  Of  known  forms  of  force, 
minuter  manifestations  became  appreciable;  and  forms  of 
force  before  unknown  were  rendered  cognizable  and  meas- 
ureable.  Where  forces  had  apparently  ended  in  nothing, 
and  had  been  carelessly  supposed  to  have  actually  done  so, 
instrumental  observation  proved  that  effects  had  in  every 
instance  been  produced:  the  forces  reappearing  in  new 
shapes.  Hence  there  has  at  length  arisen  the  inquiry 
whether  the  force  displayed  in  each  surrounding  change, 
does  not  in  the  act  of  expenditure  undergo  metamorphosis 
into  an  equivalent  amount  of  some  other  force  or  forces. 
And  to  this  inquiry  experiment  is  giving  an  affirmative  an- 
swer, which  becomes  daily  more  decisive.  Meyer,  Joule, 
Grove  and  Helmholtz  are  more  than  any  others  to  be  cred- 
ited with  the  clear  enunciation  of  this  doctrine.  Let  us 
glance  at  the  evidence  on  which  it  rests. 

Motion,  wherever  we  can  directly  trace  its  genesis,  we 
find  to  pre-exist  as  some  other  mode  of  force.  Our  own  vol- 
untary acts  have  always  certain  sensations  of  muscular 
tension  as  their  antecedents.  When,  as  in  letting  fall  a  re- 
laxed limb,  we  are  conscious  of  a  bodily  movement  requiring 
no  effort,  the  explanation  is  that  the  effort  was  exerted  in 

205 


206*  TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE  OF  FORCES. 

raising  the  limb  to  the  position  whence  it  fell.    In  this  case, 
-  as  in  the  case  of  an  inanimate  body  descending  to  the  Earth, 
the  force  accumulated  by  the  downward  motion  is  just  equal 
to   the   force   previously   expended   in   the   act   of   eleva- 
tion. Conversely,  Motion  that  is  arrested  produces, 
under  different  circumstances,  heat,  electricity,  magnetism, 
light.     From  the  warming  of  the  hands  by  rubbing  them 
together,  up  to  the  ignition  of  a  railway-brake  by  intense 
friction — from  the  lighting  of  detonating  powder  by  percus- 
sion, up  to  the  setting  on  fire  a  block  of  wood  by  a  few  blows 
from  a  steam-hammer;  we  have  abundant  instances  in  which 
heat  arises  as  Motion  ceases.    It  is  uniformly  found,  that  the 
heat  generated  is  great  in  proportion  as  the  Motion  lost  is 
great;  and  that  to  diminish  the  arrest  of  motion,  by  dimin- 
ishing the  friction,  is  to  diminish  the   quantity  of  heat 
evolved.     The  production  of  electricity  by  Motion  is  illus- 
trated equally  in  the  boy's  experiment  with  rubbed  sealing- 
wax,  in  the  common  electrical  machine,  and  in  the  apparatus 
for  exciting  electricity  by  the  escape  of  steam.     Wherever 
there  is  friction  between  heterogeneous  bodies,  electrical  dis- 
turbance is  one  of  the  consequences.    Magnetism  may  result 
from  Motion  either  immediately,  as  through  percussion  on 
iron,  or  mediately  as  through  electric  currents  previously 
generated  by  Motion.     And  similarly,  Motion  may  create 
light;  either  directly,  as  in  the  minute  incandescent  frag- 
ments struck   off   by  violent   collisions,   or  indirectly,   as 
through  the  electric  spark.     "  Lastly,  Motion  may  be  again 
reproduced  by  the  forces  which  have  emanated  from  Mo- 
tion; thus,  the  divergence  of  the  electrometer,  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  electrical  wheel,  the  deflection  of  the  magnetic 
needle,  are,  when  resulting  from  frictional  electricity,  pal- 
pable movements  reproduced  by  the  intermediate  modes  of 
force,  which  have  themselves  been  originated  by  motion." 

That  mode  of  force  which  we  distinguish  as  Heat,  is 
now  generally  regarded  by  physicists  as  molecular  motion — 
not  motion  as  displayed  in  the  changed  relations  of  sensible 


TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE   OF  FORCES.  207 

masses  to  each  other,  but  as  occurring  among  the  units  of 
which  such  sensible  masses  consist.  If  we  cease  to  think  of 
Heat  as  that  particular  sensation  given  to  us  by  bodies  in 
certain  conditions,  and  consider  the  phenomena  otherwise 
presented  by  these  bodies,  we  find  that  motion,  either  in 
them  or  in  surrounding  bodies,  or  in  both,  is-  all  that  we 
have  evidence  of.  With  one  or  two  exceptions  which  are 
obstacles  to  every  theory  of  Heat,  heated  bodies  expand; 
and  expansion  can  be  interpreted  only  as  a  movement  of  the 
units  of  a  mass  in  relation  to  each  other.  That  so-called 
radiation  through  which  anything  of  higher  temperature 
than  things  around  it,  communicates  Heat  to  them,  is  clearly 
a  species  of  motion.  Moreover,  the  evidence  afforded  by  the 
thermometer  that  Heat  thus  diffuses  itself,  is  simply  a  move- 
ment caused  in  the  mercurial  column.  And  that  the  molecu- 
lar motion  which  we  call  Heat,  may  be  transformed  into  visi- 
ble motion,  familiar  proof  is  given  by  the  steam-engine;  in 
which  "  the  piston  and  all  its  concomitant  masses  of  matter 
are  moved  by  the  molecular  dilatation  of  the  vapour  of 
water."  Where  Heat  is  absorbed  without  apparent 

result,  modern  inquiries  show  that  decided  though  unob- 
trusive changes  are  produced:  as  on  glass,  the  molecular 
state  of  which  is  so  far  changed  by  heat,  that  a  polarized  ray 
of  light  passing  through  it  becomes  visible,  which  it  does  not 
do  when  the  glass  is  cold ;  or  as  on  polished  metallic  surfaces, 
which  are  so  far  changed  in  structure  by  thermal  radiations 
from  objects  very  close  to  them,  as  to  retain  permanent  im- 
pressions of  such  objects.  The  transformation  of  Heat  into 
electricity,  occurs  when  dissimilar  metals  touching  each 
other  are  heated  at  the  point  of  contact :  electric  currents  be- 
ing so  induced.  Solid,  incombustible  matter  introduced 
into  heated  gas,  as  lime  into  the  oxy-hydrogen  flame,  be- 
comes incandescent;  and  so  exhibits  the  conversion  of  Heat 
into  light.  The  production  of  magnetism  by  Heat,  if  it  can- 
not be  proved  to  take  place  directly,  may  be  proved  to  take 
place  indirectly  through  the  medium  of  electricity.     And 


208  TRANSFORMATION  AND   EQUIVALENCE  OF  FORCES. 

through  the  same  medium  may  be  established  the  correla- 
tion of  Heat  and  chemical  affinity — a  correlation  which  is 
indeed  implied  by  the  marked  influence  that  Heat  exercises 
on  chemical  composition  and  decomposition. 

The  transformations  of  Electricity  into  other  modes  of 
force,  are  still  more  clearly  demonstrable.  Produced  by  the 
motion  of  heterogeneous  bodies  in  contact,  Electricity, 
through  attractions  and  repulsions,  will  immediately  repro- 
duce motion  in  neighbouring  bodies.  Xow  a  current  of 
Electricity  generates  magnetism  in  a  bar  of  soft  iron;  and 
now  the  rotation  of  a  permanent  magnet  generates  currents 
of  Electricity.  Here  we  have  a  battery  in  which  from  the 
play  of  chemical  affinities  an  electric  current  results;  and 
there,  in  the  adjacent  cell,  we  have  an  electric  current  effect- 
ing chemical  decomposition.  In  the  conducting  wire  we  wit- 
ness the  transformation  of  Electricity  into  heat;  while  in 
electric  sparks  and  in  the  voltaic  arc  we  see  light  produced. 
Atomic  arrangement,  too,  is  changed  by  Electricity:  as  in- 
stance the  transfer  of  matter  from  pole  to  pole  of  a  battery ; 
the  fractures  caused  by  the  disruptive  discharge ;  the  forma- 
tion of  crystals  under  the  influence  of  electric  currents. 
And  whether,  conversely,  Electricity  be  or  be  not  directly 
generated  by  re-arrangement  of  the  atoms  of  matter,  it  is  at 
any  rate  indirectly  so  generated  through  the  intermediation 
of  magnetism. 

How  from  Magnetism  the  other  physical  forces  result, 
must  be  next  briefly  noted — briefly,  because  in  each  succes- 
sive case  the  illustrations  become  in  great  part  the  obverse 
forms  of  those  before  given.  That  Magnetism  produces 
motion  is  the  ordinary  evidence  we  have  of  its  existence.  In 
the  magneto-electric  machine  we  see  a  rotating  magnet 
evolving  electricity.  And  the  electricity  so  evolved  may 
immediately  after  exhibit  itself  as  heat,  light,  or  chemical 
affinity.  Faraday's  discovery  of  the  effect  of  Magnetism  on 
polarized  light,  as  well  as  the  discovery  that  change  of  mag- 
netic state  is  accompanied  by  heat  point  to  further  like  con- 


TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE  OP  FORCES.  209 

nexions.  Lastly,  various  experiments  show  that  the  mag- 
netization of  a  body  alters  its  internal  structure;  and  that 
conversely,  the  alteration  of  its  internal  structure,  as  by 
mechanical  strain,  alters  its  magnetic  condition. 

Improbable  as  it  seemed,  it  is  now  proved  that  from 
Light  also  may  proceed  the  like  variety  of  agencies.  The 
solar  rays  change  the  atomic  arrangements  of  particular 
crystals.  Certain  mixed  gases,  which  do  not  otherwise  com- 
bine, combine  in  the  sunshine.  In  some  compounds  Light 
produces  decomposition.  Since  the  inquiries  of  photogra- 
phers have  drawn  attention  to  the  subject,  it  has  been  shown 
that  "  a  vast  number  of  substances,  both  elementary  and 
compound,  are  notably  affected  by  this  agent,  even  those  ap- 
parently the  most  unalterable  in  character,  such  as  metals." 
And  when  a  daguerreotype  plate  is  connected  with  a  proper 
apparatus  "  we  get  chemical  action  on  the  plate,  electricity 
circulating  through  the  wires,  magnetism  in  the  coil,  heat  in 
the  helix,  and  motion  in  the  needles." 

The  genesis  of  all  other  modes  of  force  from  Chemical 
Action,  scarcely  needs  pointing  out.  The  ordinary  accom- 
paniment of  chemical  combination  is  heat;  and  when  the 
affinities  are  intense,  light  also  is,  under  fit  conditions,  pro- 
duced. Chemical  changes  involving  alteration  of  bulk, 
cause  motion,  both  in  the  combining  elements  and  in  adja- 
cent masses  of  matter :  witness  the  propulsion  of  a  bullet  by 
the  explosion  of  gun-powder.  In  the  galvanic  battery  we 
see  electricity  resulting  from  chemical  composition  and  de- 
composition. While  through  the  medium  of  this  electricity, 
Chemical  Action  produces  magnetism. 

These  facts,  the  larger  part  of  which  are  culled  from 
Mr.  Grove's  work  on  "  The  Correlation  of  Physical  Forces," 
show  us  that  each  force  is  transformable,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, into  the  others.  In  every  change  Force  undergoes 
metamorphosis ;  and  from  the  new  form  or  forms  it  assumes, 
may  subsequently  result  either  the  previous  one  or  any  of 
the  rest,  in  endless  variety  of  order  and  combination.    It  is 


210  TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE   OF   FORCES. 

further  becoming  manifest  that  the  physical  forces  stand 
not  simply  in  qualitative  correlations  with  each  other,  but 
also  in  quantitative  correlations.  Besides  proving  that  one 
mode  of  force  may  be  transformed  into  another  mode,  ex- 
periments illustrate  the  truth  that  from  a  definite  amount  of 
one,  definite  amounts  of  others  always  arise.  Ordinarily  it 
is  indeed  difficult  to  show  this;  since  it  mostly  happens  that 
the  transformation  of  any  force  is  not  into  some  one  of  the 
rest  but  into  several  of  them:  the  proportions  being  deter- 
mined by  the  ever-varying  conditions.  But  in  certain  cases, 
positive  results  have  been  reached.  Mr.  Joule  has  ascer- 
tained that  the  fall  of  772  lbs.  through  one  foot,  will  raise 
the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water  one  degree  of  Fahren- 
heit. The  investigations  of  Dulong,  Petit  and  Neumann, 
have  proved  a  relation  in  amount  between  the  affinities  of 
combining  bodies  and  the  heat  evolved  during  their  combi- 
nation. Between  chemical  action  and  voltaic  electricity,  a 
quantitative  connexion  has  also  been  established :  Faraday's 
experiments  implying  that  a  specific  measure  of  electricity 
is  disengaged  by  a  given  measure  of  chemical  action.  The 
well-determined  relations  between  the  quantities  of  heat 
generated  and  water  turned  into  steam,  or  still  better  the 
known  expansion  produced  in  steam  by  each  additional  de- 
gree of  heat,  may  be  cited  in  further  evidence.  Whence  it 
is  no  longer  doubted  that  among  the  several  forms  which 
force  assumes,  the  quantitative  relations  are  fixed.  The  con- 
clusion tacitly  agreed  on  by  physicists,  is,  not  only  that  the 
physical  forces  undergo  metamorphoses,  but  that  a  certain 
amount  of  each  is  the  constant  equivalent  of  certain  amounts 
of  the  others. 

§  67.  Everywhere  throughout  the  Cosmos  this  truth 
must  invariably  hold.  Every  successive  change,  or  group  of 
changes,  going  on  in  it,  must  be  due  to  forces  affiliable  on 
the  like  or  unlike  forces  previously  existing ;  while  from  the 
forces  exhibited  in  such  change  or  changes  must  be  derived 


TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE   OF   FORCES.  211 

others  more  or  less  transformed.  And  besides  recognizing 
this  necessary  linking  of  the  forces  at  any  time  manifested, 
with  those  preceding  and  succeeding  them,  we  must  recog- 
nize the  amounts  of  these  forces  as  determinate — as  neces- 
sarily producing  such  and  such  quantities  of  results,  and  as 
necessarily  limited  to  those  quantities. 

That  unification  of  knowledge  which  is  the  business  of 
Philosophy,  is  but  little  furthered  by  the  establishment  of 
this  truth  under  its  general  form.  We  must  trace  it  out 
under  its  leading  special  forms.  Changes,  and  the  accom- 
panying transformations  of  forces,  are  everywhere  in  pro- 
gress, from  the  movements  of  stars  to  the  currents  of  our 
thoughts;  and  to  comprehend,  in  any  adequate  way,  the 
meaning  of  the  great  fact  that  forces,  unceasingly  metamor- 
phosed, are  nowhere  increased  or  decreased,  it  is  requisite 
for  us  to  contemplate  the  various  orders  of  changes  going  on 
around,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whence  arise  the 
forces  they  imply  and  what  becomes  of  these  forces.  Of 
course  if  answerable  at  all,  these  questions  can  be  answered 
only  in  the  rudest  way.  We  cannot  hope  to  establish 
equivalence  among  the  successive  manifestations  of  force. 
The  most  we  can  hope  is  to  establish  a  qualitative  correla- 
tion that  is  indefinitely  quantitative — quantitative  to  the 
extent  of  involving  something  like  a  due  proportion  between 
causes  and  effects. 

Let  us,  with  the  view  of  trying  to  do  this,  consider  in 
succession  the  several  classes  of  phenomena  which  the  sev- 
eral concrete  sciences  deal  with. 

§  68.  The  antecedents  of  those  forces  which  our  Solar 
System  displays,  belong  to  a  past  of  which  we  can  never 
have  anything  but  inferential  knowledge ;  and  at  present  we 
cannot  be  said  to  have  even  this.  Numerous  and  strong  as 
are  the  reasons  for  believing  the  Nebular  Hypothesis,  we 
cannot  yet  regard  it  as  more  than  an  hypothesis.  If,  how- 
ever, we  assume  that  the  matter  composing  the  Solar  System 


212  TRANSFORMATION  AND   EQUIVALENCE   OF  FORCES. 

once  existed  in  a  diffused  state,  we  have,  in  the  gravitation 
of  its  parts,  a  force  adequate  to  produce  the  motions  now 
going  on. 

Masses  of  precipitated  nebulous  matter,  moving  towards 
their  common  centre  of  gravity  through  the  resisting  me- 
dium from  which  they  were  precipitated,  will  inevitably 
cause  a  general  rotation,  increasing  in  rapidity  as  the  concen- 
tration progresses.  So  far  as  the  evidence  carries  us,  we  per- 
ceive some  quantitative  relation  between  the  motions  so  gen- 
erated and  the  gravitative  forces  expended  in  generating 
them.  The  planets  formed  from  that  matter  which  has  trav- 
elled the  shortest  distance  towards  the  common  centre  of 
gravity,  have  the  smallest  velocities.  Doubtless  this  is  ex- 
plicable on  the  teleological  hypothesis;  since  it  is  a  condition 
to  equilibrium.  But  without  insisting  that  this  is  beside  the 
question,  it  will  suffice  to  point  out  that  the  like  cannot  be 
said  of  the  planetary  rotations.  Xo  such  final  cause  can  be 
assigned  for  the  rapid  axial  movement  of  Jupiter  and 
Saturn,  or  the  slow  axial  movement  of  Mercury.  If, 
however,  in  pursuance  of  the  doctrine  of  transformation, 
we  look  for  the  antecedents  of  these  gyrations  which  all 
planets  exhibit,  the  nebular  hypothesis  furnishes  us  with 
antecedents  which  bear  manifest  quantitative  relations  to 
the  motions  displayed.  For  the  planets  that  turn  on  their 
axes  with  extreme  rapidity,  are  those  having  great  masses 
and  large  orbits — those,  that  is,  of  which  the  once  diffused 
elements  moved  to  their  centres  of  gravity  through  immense 
spaces,  and  so  acquired  high  velocities.  While,  conversely, 
the  planets  which  rotate  with  the  smallest  velocities,  are 
those  formed  out  of  the  smallest  nebulous  rings — a  relation 
still  better  shown  by  satellites. 

"  But  what,"  it  may  be  asked,  "  has  in  such  case  become 
of  all  that  motion  which  brought  about  the  aggregation  of 
this  diffused  matter  into  solid  bodies?  "  The  answer  is  that 
it  has  been  radiated  in  the  form  of  heat  and  light ;  and  this 
answer  the  evidence,  so  far  as  it  goes,  confirms.    Geologists 


TRANSFORMATION   ADD   EQUIVALENCE   OF  FORCES.  213 

conclude  that  the  heat  of  the  Earth's  still  molten  nucleus  is 
but  a  remnant  of  the  heat  which  once  made  molten  the 
entire  Earth.  The  mountainous  surfaces  of  the  Moon  and 
of  Venus  (which  alone  are  near  enough  to  be  scrutinized), 
indicating,  as  they  do,  crusts  that  have,  like  our  own,  been 
corrugated  by  contraction,  imply  that  these  bodies  too  have 
undergone  refrigeration.  Lastly,  we  have  in  the  Sun  a  still- 
continued  production  of  this  heat  and  light,  which  must 
result  from  the  arrest  of  diffused  matter  moving  towards  a 
common  centre  of  gravity.  Here  also,  as  before,  a 

quantitative  relation  is  traceable.  Among  the  bodies  which 
make  up  the  Solar  System,  those  containing  comparatively 
small  amounts  of  matter  whose  centripetal  motion  has  been 
destroyed,  have  already  lost  nearly  all  the  produced  heat :  a 
result  which  their  relatively  larger  surfaces  have  facilitated. 
But  the  Sun,  a  thousand  times  as  great  in  mass  as  the 
largest  planet,  and  having  therefore  to  give  off  an  enormous- 
ly greater  quantity  of  heat  and  light  due  to  arrest  of  moving 
matter,  is  still  radiating  with  great  intensity. 

§  69.  If  we  inquire  the  origin  of  those  forces  which  have 
wrought  the  surface  of  our  planet  into  its  present  shape,  we 
find  them  traceable  to  the  primordial  source  just  assigned. 
Assuming  the  solar  system  to  have  arisen  as  above  supposed, 
then  geologic  changes  are  either  direct  or  indirect  results 
of  the  unexpended  heat  caused  by  nebular  condensation. 
These  changes  are  commonly  divided  into  igneous  and  aque- 
ous— heads  under  which  we  may  most  conveniently  con- 
sider them. 

All  those  periodic  disturbances  which  we  call  earth- 
quakes, all  those  elevations  and  subsidences  which  they  sev- 
erally produce,  all  those  accumulated  effects  of  many  such 
elevations  and  subsidences  exhibited  in  ocean-basins,  islands, 
continents,  table-lands,  mountain-chains,  and  all  those  for- 
mations which  are  distinguished  as  volcanic,  geologists  now 
regard  as  modifications  of  the  Earth's  crust  produced  by  the 


214  TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE  OF  FORCES. 

still-molten  matter  occupying  its  interior.  However  unten- 
able may  be  the  details  of  M.  Elie  de  Beaumont's  theory, 
there  is  good  reason  to  accept  the  general  proposition  that 
the  disruptions  and  variations  of  level  which  take  place  at 
intervals  on  the  terrestrial  surface,  are  due  to  the  progressive 
collapse  of  the  Earth's  solid  envelope  upon  its  cooling  and 
contracting  nucleus.  Even  supposing  that  volcanic  erup- 
tions, extrusions  of  igneous  rock,  and  upheaved  mountain 
chains,  could  be  otherwise  satisfactorily  accounted  for, 
which  they  cannot;  it  would  be  impossible  otherwise  to  ac- 
count for  those  wide-spread  elevations  and  depressions 
whence  continents  and  oceans  result.  The  conclusion  to  be 
drawn  is,  then,  that  the  forces  displayed  in  these  so-called 
igneous  changes,  are  derived  positively  or  negatively  from 
the  unexpended  heat  of  the  Earth's  interior.  Such  phenom- 
ena as  the  fusion  or  agglutination  of  sedimentary  deposits, 
the  warming  of  springs,  the  sublimation  of  metals  into  the 
fissures  where  we  find  them  as  ores,  may  be  regarded  as  posi- 
tive results  of  this  residuary  heat;  while  fractures  of  strata 
and  alterations  of  level  are  its  negative  results,  since  they 
ensue  on  its  escape.  The  original  cause  of  all  these 
effects  is  still,  however,  as  it  has  been  from  the  first, 
the  gravitating  movement  of  the  Earth's  matter  towards  the 
Earth's  centre;  seeing  that  to  this  is  due  both  the  internal 
heat  itself  and  the  collapse  which  takes  place  as  it  is  radiated 
into  space. 

AYhen  we  inquire  under  what  forms  previously  existed 
the  force  which  works  out  the  geological  changes  classed  as 
aqueous,  the  answer  is  less  obvious.  The  effects  of  rain,  of 
rivers,  of  winds,  of  waves,  of  marine  currents,  do  not  mani- 
festly proceed  from  one  general  source.  Analysis,  neverthe- 
less, proves  to  us  that  they  have  a  common  genesis.  If  we 
ask, — Whence  comes  the  power  of  the  river-current,  bearing 
sediment  down  to  the  sea?  the  reply  is, — The  gravitation  of 
water  throughout  the  tract  which  this  river  drains.  If  we 
ask, — How  came  the  water  to  be  dispersed  over  this  tract  ? 


TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE  OF  FORCES.  215 

the  reply  is, — It  fell  in  the  shape  of  rain.  If  we  ask, — How 
came  the  rain  to  be  in  that  position  whence  it  fell  ?  the  reply 
is, — The  vapour  from  which  it  was  condensed  was  drifted 
there  by  the  winds.  If  we  ask, — How  came  this  vapour  to 
be  at  that  elevation  ?  the  reply  is, — It  was  raised  by  evapora- 
tion. And  if  we  ask, — What  force  thus  raised  it  ?  the  reply 
is, — The  sun's  heat.  Just  that  amount  of  gravitative  force 
which  the  sun's  heat  overcame  in  raising  the  atoms  of  water, 
is  given  out  again  in  the  fall  of  those  atoms  to  the  same  level. 
Hence  the  denudations  effected  by  rain  and  rivers,  during 
the  descent  of  this  condensed  vapour  to  the  level  of  the  sea, 
are  indirectly  due  to  the  sun's  heat.  Similarly  with  the 
winds  that  transport  the  vapours  hither  and  thither.  Con- 
sequent as  atmospheric  currents  are  on  differences  of  tem- 
perature (either  general,  as  between  the  equatorial  and  polar 
regions,  or  special  as  between  tracts  of  the  Earth's  surface  of 
unlike  physical  characters)  all  such  currents  are  due  to  that 
source  from  which  the  varying  quantities  of  heat  proceed. 
And  if  the  winds  thus  originate,  so  too  do  the  waves  raised 
by  them  on  the  sea's  surface.  Whence  it  follows  that  what- 
ever changes  waves  produce — the  wearing  away  of  shores, 
the  breaking  down  of  rocks  into  shingle,  sand,  and  mud — - 
are  also  traceable  to  the  solar  rays  as  their  primary  cause. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  ocean-currents.  Generated  as  the 
larger  ones  are  by  the  excess  of  heat  which  the  ocean  in 
tropical  climates  continually  acquires  from  the  Sun;  and 
generated  as  the  smaller  ones  are  by  minor  local  differences 
in  the  quantities  of  solar  heat  absorbed ;  it  follows  that  the 
distribution  of  sediment  and  other  geological  processes 
which  these  marine  currents  effect,  are  affiliable  upon  the 
force  which  the  sun  radiates.  The  only  aqueous  agency 
otherwise  originating  is  that  of  the  tides — an  agency  which, 
equally  with  the  others,  is  traceable  to  unexpended  astro- 
nomical motion.  But  making  allowance  for  the  changes 
which  this  works,  we  reach  the  conclusion  that  the  slow 
wearing  down  of  continents  and  gradual  filling  up  of  seas, 


216  TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE  OF   FORCES. 

by  rain,  rivers,  winds,  waves,  and  ocean-streams,  are  the 
indirect  effects  of  solar  heat. 

Tims  the  inference  forced  on  us  by  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
formation, that  the  forces  which  have  moulded  and  re- 
moulded the  Earth's  crust  must  have  pre-existed  under  some 
other  shape,  presents  no  difficulty  if  nebular  genesis  be 
granted;  since  this  pre-supposes  certain  forces  that  are  both 
adequate  to  the  results,  and  cannot  be  expended  without  pro- 
ducing the  results.  We  see  that  while  the  geological 
changes  classed  as  igneous,  arise  from  the  still-progressing 
motion  of  the  Earth's  substance  to  its  centre  of  gravity ;  the 
antagonistic  changes  classed  as  aqueous,  arise  from  the  still- 
progressing  motion  of  the  Sun's  substance  towards  its  centre 
of  gravity — a  motion  which,  transformed  into  heat  and  radi- 
ated to  us,  is  here  re-transformed,  directly  into  motions  of  the 
gaseous  and  liquid  matters  on  the  Earth's  surface,  and  indi- 
rectly into  motions  of  the  solid  matters. 

§  TO.  That  the  forces  exhibited  in  vital  actions,  vegetal 
and  animal,  are  similarly  derived,  is  so  obvious  a  deduction 
from  the  facts  of  organic  chemistry,  that  it  will  meet  with 
ready  acceptance  from  readers  acquainted  with  these  facts. 
Let  us  note  first  the  physiological  generalizations;  and  then 
the  generalizations  which  they  necessitate. 

Plant-life  is  all  directly  or  indirectly  dependent  on  the 
heat  and  light  of  the  sun — directly  dependent  in  the  im- 
mense majority  of  plants,  and  indirectly  dependent  in  plants 
which,  as  the  fungi,  flourish  in  the  dark:  since  these,  grow- 
ing as  they  do  at  the  expense  of  decaying  organic  matter, 
mediately  draw  their  forces  from  the  same  original  source. 
Each  plant  owes  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  which  it  mainly 
consists,  to  the  carbonic  acid  and  water  contained  in  the  sur- 
rounding air  and  earth.  The  carbonic  acid  and  water  must, 
however,  be  decomposed  before  their  carbon  and  hydrogen 
can  be  assimilated.  To  overcome  the  powerful  affinities 
which  hold  their  elements  together,  requires  the  expenditure 


TRANSFORMATION  AND   EQUIVALENCE   OF   FORCES.  21f 

of  force;  and  this  force  is  supplied  by  the  Sun.  In  what 
manner  the  decomposition  is  effected  we  do  not  know.  But 
we  know  that  when,  under  fit  conditions,  plants  are  exposed 
to  the  Sun's  rays,  they  give  off  oxygen  and  accumulate  car- 
bon and  hydrogen.  In  darkness  this  process  ceases.  It 
ceases  too  when  the  quantities  of  light  and  heat  received  are 
greatly  reduced,  as  in  winter.  Conversely,  it  is  active  when 
the  light  and  heat  are  great,  as  in  summer.  And  the  like  re- 
lation is  seen  in  the  fact  that  while  plant-life  is  luxuriant  in 
the  tropics,  it  diminishes  in  temperate  regions,  and  disap- 
pears as  we  approach  the  poles.  Thus  the  irresistible  infer- 
ence is,  that  the  forces  by  which  plants  abstract  the  materi- 
als of  their  tissues  from  surrounding  inorganic  compounds — 
the  forces  by  which  they  grow  and  carry  on  their  functions, 
are  forces  that  previously  existed  as  solar  radiations. 

That  animal  life  is  immediately  or  mediately  dependent 
on  vegetal  life  is  a  familiar  truth ;  and  that,  in  the  main,  the 
processes  of  animal  life  are  opposite  to  those  of  vegetal  life  is 
a  truth  long  current  among  men  of  science.  Chemically 
considered,  vegetal  life  is  chiefly  a  process  of  de-oxidation, 
and  animal  life  chiefly  a  process  of  oxidation:  chiefly,  we 
must  say,  because  in  so  far  as  plants  are  expenders  of  force 
for  the  purposes  of  organization,  they  are  oxidizers  (as  is 
shown  by  the  exhalation  of  carbonic  acid  during  the  night) ; 
and  animals,  in  some  of  their  minor  processes,  are  probably 
de-oxidizers.  But  with  this  qualification,  the  general  truth 
is  that  while  the  plant,  decomposing  carbonic  acid  and  water 
and  liberating  oxygen,  builds  up  the  detained  carbon  and 
hydrogen  (along  with  a  little  nitrogen  and  small  quantities 
of  other  elements  elsewhere  obtained)  into  branches,  leaves, 
and  seeds;  the  animal,  consuming  these  branches,  leaves, 
and  seeds,  and  absorbing  oxygen,  recomposes  car- 
bonic acid  and  water,  together  with  certain  nitrogenous 
compounds  in  minor  amounts.  And  while  the  decom- 
position effected  by  the  plant,  is  at  the  expense  of  certain 
forces  emanating  from  the  sun,  which  are  employed  in 
1G 


218   TRANSFORMATION  AND   EQUIVALENCE  OF  FORCES. 

overcoming  the  affinities  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  for  the 
oxygen  united  with  them ;  the  re-composition  effected  by  the 
animal,  is  at  the  profit  of  these  forces,  which  are  liberated 
during  the  combination  of  such  elements.  Thus  the  move- 
ments, internal  and  external,  of  the  animal,  are  re-appear- 
ances in  new  forms  of  a  power  absorbed  by  the  plant  under 
the  shape  of  light  and  heat.  Just  as,  in  the  manner  above 
explained,  the  solar  forces  expended  in  raising  vapour  from 
the  sea's  surface,  are  given  out  again  in  the  fall  of  rain  and 
rivers  to  the  same  level,  and  in  the  accompanying  transfer  of 
solid  matters ;  so,  the  solar  forces  that  in  the  plant  raised  cer- 
tain chemical  elements  to  a  condition  of  unstable  equilibri- 
um, are  given  out  again  in  the  actions  of  the  animal  dur- 
ing the  fall  of  these  elements  to  a  condition  of  stable  equi- 
librium. 

Besides  thus  tracing  a  qualitative  correlation  between 
these  two  great  orders  of  organic  activity,  as  well  as  between 
both  of  them  and  inorganic  agencies,  we  may  rudely  trace  a 
quantitative  correlation.  Where  vegetal  life  is  abundant, 
we  usually  find  abundant  animal  life;  and  as  we  advance 
from  torrid  to  temperate  and  frigid  climates,  the  two  de- 
crease together.  Speaking  generally,  the  animals  of  each 
class  reach  a  larger  size  in  regions  where  vegetation  is 
abundant,  than  in  those  where  it  is  sparse.  And  further, 
there  is  a  tolerably  apparent  connexion  between  the  quan- 
tity of  energy  which  each  species  of  animal  expends,  and  the 
quantity  of  force  which  the  nutriment  it  absorbs  gives  out 
during  oxidation. 

Certain  phenomena  of  development  in  both  plants  and 
animals,  illustrate  still  more  directly  the  ultimate  truth 
enunciated.  Pursuing  the  suggestion  made  by  Mr.  Grove, 
in  the  first  edition  of  his  work  on  the  "  Correlation  of  the 
Physical  Forces,"  that  a  connexion  probably  exists  between 
the  forces  classed  as  vital  and  those  classed  as  physical, 
Dr.  Carpenter  has  pointed  out  that  such  a  connexion  is 
clearly  exhibited  during  incubation.    The  transformation  of 


TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE   OF   FORCES.   219 

the  unorganized  contents  of  an  egg  into  the  organized  chick, 
is  altogether  a  question  of  heat:  withhold  heat  and  the  pro- 
cess does  not  commence;  supply  heat  and  it  goes  on  while 
the  temperature  is  maintained,  but  ceases  when  the  egg  is  al- 
lowed to  cool.  The  developmental  changes  can  be  completed 
only  by  keeping  the  temperature  with  tolerable  constancy  at 
a  definite  height  for  a  definite  time ;  that  is — only  by  supply- 
ing a  definite  quantity  of  heat.  In  the  metamorphoses  of 
insects  we  may  discern  parallel  facts.  Experiments  show 
not  only  that  the  hatching  of  their  eggs  is  determined  by 
temperature,  but  also  that  the  evolution  of  the  pupa  into  the 
imago  is  similarly  determined;  and  may  be  immensely  ac- 
celerated or  retarded  according  as  heat  is  artificially  supplied 
or  withheld.  It  will  suffice  just  to  add  that  the  germination 
of  plants  presents  like  relations  of  cause  and  effect — relations 
so  similar  that  detail  is  superfluous. 

Thus  then  the  various  changes  exhibited  to  us  by  the 
organic  creation,  whether  considered  as  a  whole,  or  in  its  two 
great  divisions,  or  in  its  individual  members,  conform,  so  far 
as  we  can  ascertain,  to  the  general  principle.  Where,  as  in 
the  transformation  of  an  egg  into  a  chick,  we  can  investigate 
the  phenomena  apart  from  all  complications,  we  find  that  the 
force  manifested  in  the  process  of  organisation,  involves 
expenditure  of  a  pre-existing  force.  Where  it  is  not,  as 
in  the  egg  or  the  chrysalis,  merely  the  change  of  a  fixed 
quantity  of  matter  into  a  new  shape,  but  where,  as  in  the 
growing  plant  or  animal,  we  have  an  incorporation  of  mat- 
ter existing  outside,  there  is  still  a  pre-existing  external  force 
at  the  cost  of  which  this  incorporation  is  effected.  And 
where,  as  in  the  higher  division  of  organisms,  there  remain 
over  and  above  the  forces  expended  in  organization,  certain 
surplus  forces  expended  in  movement,  these  too  are  indirect- 
ly derived  from  this  same  pre-existing  external  force. 

§  71.  Even  after  all  that  has  been  said  in  the  foregoing 
part  of  this  work,  many  will  be  alarmed  by  the  assertion, 


220  TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE   OF   FORCES. 

that  the  forces  which  we  distinguish  as  mental,  come  within 
the  same  generalization.  Yet  there  is  no  alternative  but  to 
make  this  assertion:  the  facts  which  justify,  or  rather  which 
necessitate  it,  being  abundant  and  conspicuous.  They  fall 
into  the  following  groups. 

All  impressions  from  moment  to  moment  made  on  our 
organs  of  sense,  stand  in  direct  correlation  with  physical 
forces  existing  externally.  The  modes  of  consciousness 
called  pressure,  motion,  sound,  light,  heat,  are  effects  pro- 
duced in  us  by  agencies  which,  as  otherwise  expended,  crush 
or  fracture  pieces  of  matter,  generate  vibrations  in  surround- 
ing objects,  cause  chemical  combinations,  and  reduce  sub- 
stances from  a  solid  to  a  liquid  form.  Hence  if  we  regard 
the  changes  of  relative  position,  of  aggregation,  or  of  chem- 
ical state,  thus  arising,  as  being  transformed  manifestations 
of  the  agencies  from  which  they  arise ;  so  must  we  regard  the 
sensations  which  such  agencies  produce  in  us,  as  new  forms 
of  the  forces  producing  them.  ^nJT  hesitation  to  admit 

that,  between  the  physical  forces  and  the  sensations  there 
exists  a  correlation  like  that  between  the  physical  forces 
themselves,  must  disappear  on  remembering  how  the  one 
correlation,  like  the  other,  is  not  qualitative  only  but  quanti- 
tative. Masses  of  matter  which,  by  scales  or  dynamo- 
meter, are  shown  to  differ  greatly  in  weight,  differ  as  greatly 
in  the  feelings  of  pressure  they  produce  on  our  bodies.  In 
arresting  moving  objects,  the  strains  we  are  conscious  of  are 
proportionate  to  the  momenta  of  such  objects  as  otherwise 
measured.  Under  like  conditions  the  impressions  of  sounds 
given  to  us  by  vibrating  strings,  bells,  or  columns  of  air,  are 
found  to  vary  in  strength  with  the  amount  of  force  applied. 
Fluids  or  solids  proved  to  be  markedly  contrasted  in  tem- 
perature by  the  different  degrees  of  expansion  they  produce 
in  the  mercurial  column,  produce  in  us  correspondingly  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  the  sensation  of  heat.  And  similarly  un- 
like intensities  in  our  impressions  of  light,  answer  to  un- 
like effects  as  measured  by  photometers. 


TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE   OF  FORCES.   221 

Besides  the  correlation  and  equivalence  between  exter- 
nal physical  forces,  and  the  mental  forces  generated  by  them 
in  us  under  the  form  of  sensations,  there  is  a  correlation  and 
equivalence  between  sensations  and  those  physical  forces 
which,  in  the  shape  of  bodily  actions,  result  from  them. 
The  feelings  we  distinguish  as  light,  heat,  sound,  odour, 
taste,  pressure,  &c,  do  not  die  away  without  immediate  re- 
sults; but  are  invariably  followed  by  other  manifestations 
of  force.  In  addition  to  the  excitements  of  secreting  organs, 
that  are  in  some  cases  traceable,  there  arises  a  contraction  of 
the  involuntary  muscles,  or  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  or  of 
both.  Sensations  increase  the  action  of  the  heart — slightly 
when  they  are  slight ;  markedly  when  they  are  marked ;  and 
recent  physiological  inquiries  imply  not  only  that  contrac- 
tion of  the  heart  is  excited  by  every  sensation,  but  also  that 
the  muscular  fibres  throughout  the  whole  vascular  system, 
are  at  the  same  time  more  or  less  contracted.  The  respira- 
tory muscles,  too,  are  stimulated  into  greater  activity  by 
sensations.  The  rate  of  .breathing  is  visibly  and  audibly 
augmented  both  by  pleasurable  and  painful  impressions  on 
the  nerves,  when  these  reach  any  intensity.  It  has  even  of 
late  been  shown  that  inspiration  becomes  more  frequent  on 
transition  from  darkness  into  sunshine, — a  result  probably 
due  to  the  increased  amount  of  direct  and  indirect  nervous 
stimulation  involved.  When  the  quantity  of  sensation  is 
great,  it  generates  contractions  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  as 
well  as  of  the  involuntary  ones.  Unusual  excitement  of  the 
nerves  of  touch,  as  by  tickling,  is  followed  by  almost  uncon- 
trollable movements  of  the  limbs.  Violent  pains  cause  vio- 
lent struggles.  The  start  succeeds  a  loud  sound,  the  wry 
face  produced  by  the  taste  of  anything  extremely  disagree- 
able, the  jerk  with  which  the  hand  or  foot  is  snatched  out 
of  water  that  is  very  hot,  are  instances  of  the  transforma- 
tion of  feeling  into  motion ;  and  in  these  cases,  as  in  all  oth- 
ers, it  is  manifest  that  the  quantity  of  bodily  action  is  pro- 
portionate to  the  quantity  of  sensation.     Even  where  from 


222   TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE  OF  FORCES. 

pride  there  is  a  suppression  of  the  screams  and  groans  ex- 
pressive of  great  pain  (also  indirect  results  of  muscular  con- 
traction), we  may  still  see  in  the  clenching  of  the  hands, 
the  knitting  of  the  brows,  and  the  setting  of  the  teeth,  that 
the  bodily  actions  developed  are  as  great,  though  less  ob- 
trusive in  their  results.  If  we  take  emotions  instead 
of  sensations,  we  find  the  correlation  and  equivalence 
equally  manifest.  Xot  only  are  the  modes  of  consciousness 
directly  produced  in  us  by  physical  forces,  re-transformable 
into  physical  forces  under  the  form  of  muscular  motions 
and  the  changes  they  initiate;  but  the  like  is  true  of  those 
modes  of  consciousness  which  are  not  directly  produced  in 
us  by  the  physical  forces.  Emotions  of  moderate  intensity, 
like  sensations  of  moderate  intensity,  generate  little  beyond 
excitement  of  the  heart  and  vascular  system,  joined  some- 
times with  increased  action  of  glandular  organs.  But  as 
the  emotions  rise  in  strength,  the  muscles  of  the  face,  body, 
and  limbs,  begin  to  move.  Of  examples  may  be  mentioned 
the  frowns,  dilated  nostrils,  and  stampings  of  anger;  the 
contracted  brows,  and  wrung  hands,  of  grief;  the  smiles 
and  leaps  of  joy;  and  the  frantic  struggles  of  terror  or  de- 
spair. Passing  over  certain  apparent,  but  only  apparent, 
exceptions,  we  see  that  whatever  be  the  kind  of  emotion, 
there  is  a  manifest  relation  between  its  amount,  and  the 
amount  of  muscular  action  induced:  alike  from  the  erect 
carriage  and  elastic  step  of  exhilaration,  up  to  the  dancings 
of  immense  delight,  and  from  the  fidgettiness  of  impatience 
up  to  the  almost  convulsive  movements  accompanying  great 
mental  agony.  To  these  several  orders  of  evidence 
must  be  joined  the  further  one,  that  between  our  feelings 
and  those  voluntary  motions  into  which  they  are  trans- 
formed, there  comes  the  sensation  of  muscular  tension, 
standing  in  manifest  correlation  with  both — a  correlation 
that  is  distinctly  quantitative:  the  sense  of  strain  varying, 
other  things  equal,  directly  as  the  quantity  of  momentum 
generated. 


TRANSFORMATION  AND   EQUIVALENCE   OF   FORCES.   223 

"  But  how,"  it  may  be  asked,  "  can  we  interpret  by  the 
law  of  correlation  the  genesis  of  those  thoughts  and  feelings 
which,  instead  of  following  external  stimuli,  arise  spontane- 
ously? Between  the  indignation  caused  by  an  insult,  and 
the  loud  sounds  or  violent  acts  that  follow,  the  alleged  con- 
nexion may  hold;  but  whence  come  the  crowd  of  ideas  and 
the  mass  of  feelings  that  expend  themselves  in  these  demon- 
strations? They  are  clearly  not  equivalents  of  the  sensa- 
tions produced  by  the  words  on  the  ears ;  for  the  same  words 
otherwise  arranged,  would  not  have  caused  them.  The 
thing  said  bears  to  the  mental  action  it  excites,  much  the 
same  relation  that  the  pulling  of  the  trigger  bears  to  the 
subsequent  explosion — does  not  produce  the  power,  but 
merely  liberates  it.  Whence  then  arises  this  immense 
amount  of  nervous  energy  which  a  whisper  or  a  glance  may 
call  forth?  "  The  reply  is,  that  the  immediate  cor- 

relates of  these  and  other  such  modes  of  consciousness, 
are  not  to  be  found  in  the  agencies  acting  on  us  externally, 
but  in  certain  internal  agencies.  The  forces  called  vital, 
which  we  have  seen  to  be  correlates  of  the  forces  called 
physical,  are  the  immediate  sources  of  these  thoughts  and 
feelings ;  and  are  expended  in  producing  them.  The  proofs 
of  this  are  various.    Here  are  some  of  them.  It  is  a 

conspicuous  fact  that  mental  action  is  contingent  on  the 
presence  of  a  certain  nervous  apparatus;  and  that,  greatly 
obscured  as  it  is  by  numerous  and  involved  conditions,  a 
general  relation  may  be  traced  between  the  size  of  this  appa- 
ratus and  the  quantity  of  mental  action  as  measured  by  its 
results.  Further,  this  apparatus  has  a  particular  chemical 
constitution  on  which  its  activity  depends ;  and  there  is  one 
element  in  it  between  the  amount  of  which  and  the  amount 
of  function  performed,  there  is  an  ascertained  connexion: 
the  proportion  of  phosphorus  present  in  the  brain  being  the 
smallest  in  infancy,  old  age  and  idiotcy,  and  the  greatest 
during  the  prime  of  life.  Note  next,  that  the  evo- 

lution of  thought  and  emotion  varies,  other  things  equal, 


22i   TRANSFORMATION  AND   EQUIVALENCE   OF  FORCES. 

with  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  brain.  On  the  one  hand,  a 
cessation  of  the  cerebral  circulation,  from  arrest  of  the 
heart's  action,  immediately  entails  unconsciousness.  On  the 
other  hand,  excess  of  cerebral  circulation  (unless  it  is  such 
as  to  cause  undue  pressure)  results  in  an  excitement  rising 
finally  to  delirium.  Xot  the  quantity  only,  but 

also  the  condition  of  the  blood  passing  through  the  nervous 
system,  influences  the  mental  manifestations.  The  arterial 
currents  must  be  duly  aerated,  to  produce  the  normal 
amount  of  cerebration.  At  the  one  extreme,  we  find  that  if 
the  blood  is  not  allowed  to  exchange  its  carbonic  acid  for 
oxygen,  there  results  asphyxia,  with  its  accompanying  stop- 
page of  ideas  and  feelings.  While  at  the  other  extreme,  we 
find  that  by  the  inspiration  of  nitrous  oxide,  there  is  pro- 
duced an  excessive,  and  indeed  irrepressible,  nervous  ac- 
tivity. Besides  the  connexion  between  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mental  forces  and  the  presence  of  sufficient 
oxygen  in  the  cerebral  arteries,  there  is  a  kindred  connexion 
between  the  development  of  the  mental  forces  and  the  pres- 
ence in  the  cerebral  arteries  of  certain  other  elements. 
There  must  be  supplied  special  materials  for  the  nutrition  of 
the  nervous  centres,  as  well  as  for  their  oxidation.  And 
how  what  we  may  call  the  quantity  of  consciousness,  is,  other 
things  equal,  determined  by  the  constituents  of  the  blood,  is 
unmistakeably  seen  in  the  exaltation  that  follows  when  cer- 
tain chemical  compounds,  as  alcohol  and  the  vegeto-alkalies, 
are  added  to  it.  The  gentle  exhilaration  which  tea  and 
coffee  create,  is  familiar  to  all;  and  though  the  gorgeous 
imaginations  and  intense  feelings  of  happiness  produced  by 
opium  and  hashish,  have  been  experienced  by  few,  (in  this 
country  at  least,)  the  testimony  of  those  who  have  experi- 
enced them  is  sufficiently  conclusive.  Yet  another 
proof  that  the  genesis  of  the  mental  energies  is  immediately 
dependent  on  chemical  change,  is  afforded  by  the  fact,  that 
the  effete  products  separated  from  the  blood  by  the  kid- 
neys, vary  in  character  with  the  amount  of  cerebral  action. 


TRANSFORMATION  AND   EQUIVALENCE   OF  FORCES.   225 

Excessive  activity  of  mind  is  habitually  accompanied  by  the 
excretion  of  an  unusual  quantity  of  the  alkaline  phosphates. 
Conditions  of  abnormal  nervous  excitement  bring  on  analo- 
gous effects.  And  the  "  peculiar  odour  of  the  insane/'  im- 
plying as  it  does  morbid  products  in  the  perspiration,  shows 
a  connexion  between  insanity  and  a  special  composition  of 
the  circulating  fluids — a  composition  which,  whether  re- 
garded as  cause  or  consequence,  equally  implies  correlation 
of  the  mental  and  the  physical  forces.  Lastly  we 

have  to  note  that  this  correlation  too,  is,  so  far  as  we  can  trace 
it,  quantitative.  Provided  the  conditions  to  nervous  action 
are  not  infringed  on,  and  the  concomitants  are  the  same, 
there  is  a  tolerably  constant  ratio  between  the  amounts  of 
the  antecedents  and  consequents.  Within  the  implied  lim- 
its, nervous  stimulants  and  anaesthetics  produce  effects  on 
the  thoughts  and  feelings,  proportionate  to  the  quantities 
administered.  And  conversely,  where  the  thoughts  and 
feelings  form  the  initial  term  of  the  relation,  the  degree  of 
reaction  on  the  bodily  energies  is  great,  in  proportion  as  they 
are  great:  reaching  in  extreme  cases  a  total  prostration  of 
physique. 

Various  classes  of  facts  thus  unite  to  prove  that  the  law 
of  metamorphosis,  which  holds  among  the  physical  forces, 
holds  equally  between  them  and  the  mental  forces.  Those 
modes  of  the  Unknowable  which  we  call  motion,  heat,  light, 
chemical  affinity,  &c,  are  alike  transformable  into  each 
other,  and  into  those  modes  of  the  Unknowable  which  we 
distinguish  as  sensation,  emotion,  thought:  these,  in  their 
turns,  being  directly  or  indirectly  re-transformable  into 
the  original  shapes.  That  no  idea  or  feeling  arises,  save 
as  a  result  of  some  physical  force  expended  in  producing 
it,  is  fast  becoming  a  common  place  of  science ;  and  whoever 
duly  weighs  the  evidence  will  see,  that  nothing  but  an  over- 
whelming bias  in  favour  of  a  pre-conceived  theory,  can  ex- 
plain its  non-acceptance.  How  this  metamorphosis 
takes  place — how  a  force  existing  as  motion,  heat,  or  light, 


226  TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE  OF  FORCES. 

can  become  a  mode  of  consciousness — how  it  is  possible  for 
aerial  vibrations  to  generate  the  sensation  we  call  sound,  or 
for  the  forces  liberated  by  chemical  changes  in  the  brain 
to  give  rise  to  emotion — these  are  mysteries  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  fathom.  But  they  are  not  profounder  mysteries 
than  the  transformations  of  the  physical  forces  into  each 
other.  They  are  not  more  completely  beyond  our  compre- 
hension than  the  natures  of  Mind  and  Matter.  They  have 
simply  the  same  insolubility  as  all  other  ultimate  questions. 
We  can  learn  nothing  more  than  that  here  is  one  of  the  uni- 
formities in  the  order  of  phenomena. 

§  72.  If  the  general  law  of  transformation  and  equiva- 
lence holds  of  the  forces  we  class  as  vital  and  mental,  it  must 
hold  also  of  those  which  we  class  as  social.  "Whatever  takes 
place  in  a  society  is  due  to  organic  or  inorganic  agencies,  or 
to  a  combination  of  the  two — results  either  from  the  undi- 
rected physical  forces  around,  from  these  physical  forces  as 
directed  by  men,  or  from  the  forces  of  the  men  themselves. 
Xo  change  can  occur  in  its  organization,  its  mode  of  activity, 
or  the  effects  it  produces  on  the  face  of  the  Earth,  but  what 
proceeds,  mediately  or  immediately,  from  these.  Let  us  con- 
sider first  the  correlation  between  the  phenomena  which 
societies  display,  and  the  vital  phenomena. 

Social  power  and  life  varies,  other  things  equal,  with  the 
population.  Though  different  races,  differing  widely  in 
their  fitness  for  combination,  show  us  that  the  forces  mani- 
fested in  a  society  are  not  necessarily  proportionate  to  the 
number  of  people;  yet  we  see  that  under  given  conditions, 
the  forces  manifested  are  confined  within  the  limits  which 
the  number  of  people  imposes.  A  small  society,  no  matter 
how  superior  the  character  of  its  members,  cannot  exhibit 
the  same  quantity  of  social  action  as  a  large  one.  The  pro- 
duction and  distribution  of  commodities  must  be  on  a  com- 
paratively small  scale.  A  multitudinous  press,  a  prolific  lit- 
erature, or  a  massive  political  agitation,  is  not  possible.    And 


TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE   OF   FORCES.  227 

there  can  be  but  a  small  total  of  results  in  the  shape  of  art- 
products  and  scientific  discoveries.  The  correlation 
of  the  social  with  the  physical  forces  through  the  inter- 
mediation of  the  vital  ones,  is,  however,  most  clearly  shown 
in  the  different  amounts  of  activity  displayed  by  the  same 
society  according  as  its  members  are  supplied  with  different 
amounts  of  force  from  the  external  world.  In  the  effects  of 
good  and  bad  harvests,  we  yearly  see  this  relation  illustrated. 
A  greatly  deficient  yield  of  wheat  is  soon  followed  by  a 
diminution  of  business.  Factories  are  worked  half-time,  or 
close  entirely;  railway  traffic  falls;  retailers  find  their  sales 
much  lessened;  house-building  is  almost  suspended;  and  if 
the  scarcity  rises  to  famine,  a  thinning  of  the  population  still 
more  diminishes  the  industrial  vivacity.  Conversely,  an 
unusually  abundant  harvest,  occurring  under  conditions  not 
otherwise  unfavourable,  both  excites  the  old  producing  and 
distributing  agencies  and  sets  up  new  ones.  The  surplus  so- 
cial energy  finds  vent  in  speculative  enterprises.  Capital 
seeking  investment  carries  out  inventions  that  have  been 
lying  unutilized.  Labour  is  expended  in  opening  new  chan- 
nels of  communication.  There  is  increased  encouragement 
to  those  who  furnish  the  luxuries  of  life  and  minister  to  the 
aesthetic  faculties.  There  are  more  marriages,  and  a  greater 
rate  of  increase  in  population.  Thus  the  social  organism 
grows  larger,  more  complex,  and  more  active.  When, 
as  happens  with  most  civilized  nations,  the  whole  of  the  ma- 
terials for  subsistence  are  not  drawn  from  the  area  inhabited, 
but  are  partly  imported,  the  people  are  still  supported  by 
certain  harvests  elsewhere  grown  at  the  expense  of  certain 
physical  forces.  Our  own  cotton-spinners  and  weavers 
supply  the  most  conspicuous  instance  of  a  section  in 
one  nation  living,  in  great  part,  on  imported  commodi- 
ties, purchased  by  the  labour  they  expend  on  other  im- 
ported commodities.  But  though  the  social  activities 
of  Lancashire  are  due  chiefly  to  materials  not  drawn 
from  our  own  soil,  they  are  none  the  less  evolved  from 


228  TRANSFORMATION  AND   EQUIVALENCE   OF  FORCES. 

physical  forces  elsewhere  stored  up  in  fit  forms  and  then 
brought  here. 

If  we  ask  whence  come  these  physical  forces  from  which, 
through  the  intermediation  of  the  vital  forces,  the  social 
forces  arise,  the  reply  is  of  course  as  heretofore — the  solar 
radiations.  Based  as  the  life  of  a  society  is  on  animal  and 
vegetal  products;  and  dependent  as  these  animal  and  vegetal 
products  are  on  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun ;  it  follows  that 
the  changes  going  on  in.  societies  are  effects  of  forces  having 
a  common  origin  with  those  which  produce  all  the  other 
orders  of  changes  that  have  been  analyzed.  Xot  only  is  the 
force  expended  by  the  horse  harnessed  to  the  plough,  and  by 
the  labourer  guiding  it,  derived  from  the  same  reservoir 
as  is  the  force  of  the  falling  cataract  and  the  roaring  hurri- 
cane; but  to  this  same  reservoir  are  eventually  traceable 
those  subtler  and  more  complex  manifestations  of  force 
which  humanity,  as  socially  embodied,  evolves.  The  asser- 
tion is  a  startling  one,  and  by  many  will  be  thought  ludi- 
crous ;  but  it  is  an  unavoidable  deduction  which  cannot  here 
be  passed  over. 

Of  the  physical  forces  that  are  directly  transformed  into 
social  ones,  the  like  is  to  be  said.  Currents  of  air  and  water, 
which  before  the  use  of  steam  Avere  the  only  agencies 
brought  in  aid  of  muscular  effort  for  the  performance  of  in- 
dustrial processes,  are,  as  we  have  seen,  generated  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun.  And  the  inanimate  power  that  now,  to  so 
vast  an  extent,  supplements  human  labour,  is  similarly  de- 
rived. The  late  George  Stephenson  was  one  of  the  first  to 
recognize  the  fact  that  the  force  impelling  his  locomotive, 
originally  emanated  from  the  sun.  Step  by  step  we  go  back 
— from  the  motion  of  the  piston  to  the  evaporation  of  the 
water;  thence  to  the  heat  evolved  during  the  oxidation  of 
coal;  thence  to  the  assimilation  of  carbon  by  the  plants  of 
whose  imbedded  remains  coal  consists;  thence  to  the  car- 
bonic acid  from  which  their  carbon  was  obtained;  and 
thence  to  the  rays  of  light  that  de-oxidized  this  carbonic 


TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE  OF   FORCES.  229 

acid.  Solar  forces  millions  of  years  ago  expended  on  the 
Earth's  vegetation,  and  since  locked  up  beneath  its  surface, 
now  smelt  the  metals  required  for  our  machines,  turn  the 
lathes  by  which  the  machines  are  shaped,  work  them  when 
put  together,  and  distribute  the  fabrics  they  produce.  And 
in  so  far  as  economy  of  labour  makes  possible  the  support 
of  a  larger  population ;  gives  a  surplus  of  human  power  that 
would  else  be  absorbed  in  manual  occupations ;  and  it  facili- 
tates the  development  of  higher  kinds  of  activity;  it  is  clear 
that  these  social  forces  which  are  directly  correlated  with 
physical  forces  anciently  derived  from  the  sun,  are  only 
less  important  than  those  whose  correlates  are  the  vital  forces 
recently  derived  from  it. 

§  73.  Regarded  as  an  induction,  the  doctrine  set  forth  in 
this  chapter  will  most  likely  be  met  by  a  demurrer.  Many 
who  admit  that  among  physical  phenomena  at  least,  trans- 
formation of  forces  is  now  established,  will  probably  say  that 
inquiry  has  not  yet  gone  far  enough  to  enable  us  to  predicate 
equivalence.  And  in  respect  of  the  forces  classed  as  vital, 
mental,  and  social,  the  evidence  assigned,  however  little  to 
be  explained  away,  they  will  consider  by  no  means  conclu- 
sive even  of  transformation,  much  less  of  equivalence. 

To  those  who  think  thus,  it  must  now  however  be  pointed 
out,  that  the  universal  truth  above  illustrated  under  its  vari- 
ous aspects,  is  a  necessary  corollary  from  the  persistence 
of  force.  Setting  out  with  the  proposition  that  force  can 
neither  come  into  existence,  nor  cease  to  exist,  the  several 
foregoing  general  conclusions  inevitably  follow.  Each 
manifestation  of  force  can  be  interpreted  only  as  the  effect 
of  some  antecedent  force :  no  matter  whether  it  be  an  inor- 
ganic action,  an  animal  movement,  a  thought,  or  a  feeling. 
Either  this  must  be  conceded,  or  else  it  must  be  asserted  that 
our  successive  states  of  consciousness  are  self -created.  Either 
mental  energies,  as  well  as.  bodily  ones,  are  quantitatively 
correlated  to  certain  energies  expended  in  their  production, 


230  TRANSFORMATION   AND  EQUIVALENCE   OF   FORCES. 

and  to  certain  other  energies  which  they  initiate;  or  else 
nothing  must  become  something  and  something  must  be- 
come nothing.  The  alternatives  are,  to  deny  the  persistence 
of  force,  or  to  admit  that  every  physical  and  psychical 
change  is  generated  by  certain  antecedent  forces,  and  that 
from  given  amounts  of  such  forces  neither  more  nor  less  of 
such  physical  and  psychical  changes  can  result.  And  since 
the  persistence  of  force,  being  a  datum  of  conscious- 
ness, cannot  be  denied,  its  unavoidable  corollary  must  be 
accepted.  This  corollary  cannot  indeed  be  made 

more  certain  by  accumulating  illustrations.  The  truth  as 
arrived  at  deductively,  cannot  be  inductively  confirmed. 
For  every  one  of  such  facts  as  those  above  detailed,  is  estab- 
lished only  through  the  indirect  assumption  of  that  persist- 
ence of  force,  from  which  it  really  follows  as  a  direct  conse- 
quence. The  most  exact  proof  of  correlation  and  equiva- 
lence which  it  is  possible  to  reach  by  experimental  inquiry, 
is  that  based  on  measurement  of  the  forces  expended  and  the 
forces  produced.  But,  as  was  shown  in  the  last  chapter,  any 
such  process  of  measurement  implies  the  use  of  some  unit  of 
force  which  is  assumed  to  remain  constant;  and  for  this  as- 
sumption there  can  be  no  warrant  but  that  it  is  a  corollary 
from  the  persistence  of  force.  How  then  can  any  reasoning 
based  on  this  corollary,  prove  the  equally  direct  corollary 
that  when  a  given  quantity  of  force  ceases  to  exist  under  one 
form,  an  equal  quantity  must  come  into  existence  under 
some  other  form  or  forms?  Clearly  the<i priori  truth  ex- 
pressed in  this  last  corollary,  cannot  be  more  firmly  estab- 
lished by  any  a  posteriori  proofs  which  the  first  corollary 
helps  us  to. 

"  What  then,"  it  may  be  asked,  "  is  the  use  of  these  in- 
vestigations by  which  transformation  and  equivalence  of 
forces  is  sought  to  be  established  as  an  inductive  truth? 
Surely  it  will  not  be  alleged  that  they  are  useless.  Yet  if 
the  correlation  cannot  be  made  more  certain  by  them  than 
it  is  already,  does  not  their  uselessness  necessarily  follow?  " 


TRANSFORMATION  AND  EQUIVALENCE  OF  FORCES.  231 

No.  They  are  of  value  as  disclosing  the  many  particular 
implications  which  the  general  truth  does  not  specify.  They 
are  of  value  as  teaching  us  how  much  of  one  mode  of  force 
is  the  equivalent  of  so  much  of  another  mode.  They  are  of 
value  as  determining  under  what  conditions  each  metamor- 
phosis occurs.  And  they  are  ©f  value  as  leading  us  to  inquire 
in  what  shape  the  remnant  of  force  has  escaped,  when  the 
apparent  results  are  not  equivalent  to  the  cause. 


CHAPTEK  IX. 

THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION. 

§  74.  The  Absolute  Cause  of  changes,  no  matter  what 
may  be  their  special  natures,  is  not  less  incomprehensible  in 
respect  of  the  unity  or  duality  of  its  action,  than  in  all  other 
respects.  We  cannot  decide  between  the  alternative  supposi- 
tions, that  phenomena  are  due  to  the  variously-conditioned 
workings  of  a  single  force,  and  that  they  are  due  to  the  con- 
flict of  two  forces.  Whether,  as  some  contend,  everything  is 
explicable  on  the  hypothesis  of  universal  pressure,  whence 
what  we  call  tension  results  differentially  from  inequalities 
of  pressure  in  opposite  directions;  or  whether,  as  might  be 
with  equal  propriety  contended,  things  are  to  be  explained 
on  the  hypothesis  of  universal  tension,  from  which  pressure 
is  a  differential  result;  or  whether,  as  most  physicists  hold, 
pressure  and  tension  everywhere  co-exist;  are  questions 
which  it  is  impossible  to  settle.  Each  of  these  three  suppo- 
sitions makes  the  facts  comprehensible,  only  by  postulating 
an  inconceivability.  To  assume  a  universal  pressure,  con- 
fessedly requires  us  to  assume  an  infinite  plenum — an  un- 
limited space  full  of  something  which  is  everywhere  pressed 
by  something  beyond;  and  this  assumption  cannot  be  men- 
tally realized.  That  universal  tension  is  the  immediate 
agency  to  which  phenomena  are  due,  is  an  idea  open  to  a 
parallel  and  equally  fatal  objection.  And  however  verbally 
intelligible  may  be  the  proposition  that  pressure  and  tension 
everywhere  co-exist,  yet  we  cannot  truly  represent  to  our- 

232 


THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION.  233 

selves  one  ultimate  unit  of  matter  as  drawing  another  while 
resisting  it. 

Nevertheless,  this  last  belief  is  one  which  we  are  com- 
pelled to  entertain.  Matter  cannot  be  conceived  except  as 
manifesting  forces  of  attraction  and  repulsion.  Body  is  dis- 
tinguished in  our  consciousness  from  Space,  by  its  opposition 
to  our  muscular  energies;  and  this  opposition  we  feel  under 
the  twofold  form  of  a  cohesion  that  hinders  our  efforts  to 
rend,  and  a  resistance  that  hinders  our  efforts  to  compress. 
Without  resistance  there  can  be  merely  empty  extension. 
Without  cohesion  there  can  be  no  resistance.  Probably  this 
conception  of  antagonistic  forces,  is  originally  derived  from 
the  antagonism  of  onr  flexor  and  extensor  muscles.  But  be 
this  as  it  may,  we  are  obliged  to  think  of  all  objects  as  made 
up  of  parts  that  attract  and  repel  each  other;  since  this  is  the 
form  of  our  experience  of  all  objects. 

By  a  higher  abstraction  results  the  conception  of  attrac- 
tive and  repulsive  forces  pervading  space.  We  cannot  dis- 
sociate force  from  occupied  extension,  or  occupied  extension 
from  force ;  because  we  have  never  an  immediate  conscious- 
ness of  either  in  the  absence  of  the  other.  Nevertheless,  we 
have  abundant  proof  that  force  is  exercised  through  what 
appears  to  our  senses  a  vacuity.  Mentally  to  represent  this 
exercise,  we  are  hence  obliged  to  fill  the  apparent  vacuity 
with  a  species  of  matter — an  etherial  medium.  The  consti- 
tution we  assign  to  this  etherial  medium,  however,  like  the 
constitution  we  assign  to  solid  substance,  is  necessarily  an 
abstract  of  the  impressions  received  from  tangible  bodies. 
The  opposition  to  pressure  which  a  tangible  body  offers  to  us, 
is  not  shown  in  one  direction  only,  but  in  all  directions ;  and 
so  likewise  is  its  tenacity.  Suppose  countless  lines  radiating 
from  its  centre  on  every  side,  and  it  resists  along  each  of 
these  lines  and  coheres  along  each  of  these  lines.  Hence  the 
constitution  of  those  ultimate  units  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  which  phenomena  are  interpreted.  Be  they  atoms 
of  ponderable  matter  or  molecules  of  ether,  the  properties 
17 


234  THE  DIRECTION  OF   MOTION. 

we  conceive  them  to  possess  are  nothing  else  than  these  per- 
ceptible properties  idealized.  Centres  of  force  attracting 
and  repelling  each  other  in  all  directions,  are  simply  insensi- 
ble portions  of  matter  having  the  endowments  common  to 
sensible  portions  of  matter — endowments  of  which  we  can- 
not by  any  mental  effort  divest  them.  In  brief,  they  are 
the  invariable  elements  of  the  conception  of  matter,  abstract- 
ed from  its  variable  elements — size,  form,  quality,  &p.  And 
so  to  interpret  manifestations  of  force  which  cannot  be  tac- 
tnally  experienced,  we  use  the  terms  of  thought  supplied 
by  our  tactual  experiences :  and  this  for  the  sufficient  reason 
that  we  must  use  these  or  none. 

After  all  that  has  been  before  shown,  and  after  the  hint 
given  above,  it  needs  scarcely  be  said  that  these  universally 
co-existent  forces  of  attraction  and  repulsion,  must  not  be 
taken  as  realities,  but  as  our  symbols  of  the  reality.  They 
are  the  forms  under  which  the  workings  of  the  Unknowable 
are  cognizable  by  us — modes  of  the  Unconditioned  as  pre- 
sented under  the  conditions  of  our  consciousness.  But  while 
knowing  that  the  ideas  thus  generated  in  us  are  not  absolute- 
ly true,  we  may  unreservedly  surrender  ourselves  to  them  as 
relatively  true ;  and  may  proceed  to  evolve  a  series  of  deduc- 
tions having  a  like  relative  truth. 

§  75.  From  universally  co-existent  forces  of  attraction 
and  repulsion,  there  result  certain  laws  of  direction  of  all 
movement.  AVhere  attractive  forces  alone  are  concerned,  or 
rather  are  alone  appreciable,  movement  takes  place  in  the 
direction  of  their  resultant;  which  may,  in  a  sense,  be 
called  the  line  of  greatest  traction.  AYliere  repulsive  forces 
alone  are  concerned,  or  rather  are  alone  appreciable,  move- 
ment takes  place  along  their  resultant;  which  is  usually 
known  as  the  line  of  least  resistance.  And  where  both  at- 
tractive and  repulsive  forces  are  concerned,  or  are  apprecia- 
ble, movement  takes  place  along  the  resultant  of  all  the 
tractions  and  resistances.     Strictly  speaking,  this  last  is  the 


THE  DIRECTION   OF   MOTION.  235 

sole  law;  since,  by  the  hypothesis,  both  forces  are  every- 
where in  action.  Bnt  very  frequently  the  one  kind  of  force 
is  so  immensely  in  excess  that  the  effect  of  the  other  kind 
may  be  left  out  of  consideration.  Practically  we  may  say 
that  a  body  falling  to  the  Earth,  follows  the  line  of  great- 
est traction ;  since,  though  the  resistance  of  the  air  must,  if 
the  body  be  irregular,  cause  some  divergence  from  this  line, 
(quite  perceptible  with  feathers  and  leaves,)  yet  ordinarily 
the  divergence  is  so  slight  that  we  may  omit  it.  In  the  same 
manner,  though  the  course  taken  by  the  steam  from  an  ex- 
ploding boiler,  differs  somewhat  from  that  which  it  would 
take  were  gravitation  out  of  the  question ;  yet,  as  gravitation 
affects  its  course  infinitesimally,  we  are  justified  in  asserting 
that  the  escaping  steam  follows  the  line  of  least  resistance. 
Motion  then,  we  may  say,  always  follows  the  line  of  great- 
est traction,  or  the  line  of  least  resistance,  or  the  resultant 
of  the  two:  bearing  in  mind  that  though  the  last  is  alone 
strictly  true,  the  others  are  in  many  cases  sufficiently  near 
the  truth  for  practical  purposes. 

Movement  set  up  in  any  direction  is  itself  a  cause  of  fur- 
ther movement  in  that  direction,  since  it  is  the  embodiment 
of  a  surplus  force  in  that  direction.  This  holds  equally  with 
the  transit  of  matter  through  space,  the  transit  of  matter 
through  matter,  and  the  transit  through  matter  of  any  kind 
of  vibration.  In  the  case  of  matter  moving  through  space, 
this  principle  is  expressed  in  the  law  of  inertia — a  law  on 
which  the  calculations  of  physical  astronomy  are  wholly 
based.  In  the  case  of  matter  moving  through  matter,  we 
trace  the  same  truth  under  the  familiar  experience  that  any 
breach  made  by  one  solid  through  another,  or  any  chan- 
nel formed  by  a  fluid  through  a  solid,  becomes  a 
rout  along  which,  other  things  equal,  subsequent  move- 
ments of  like  nature  take  place.  And  in  the  case  of  mo- 
tion passing  through  matter  under  the  form  of  an  im- 
pulse communicated  from  part  to  part,  the  facts  of  mag- 
netization go  to  show  that  the  establishment  of  undulations 


236  THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION. 

along  certain  lines,  determines  their  continuance  along 
those  lines. 

It  further  follows  from  the  conditions,  that  the  direction 
of  movement  can  rarely  if  ever  be  perfectly  straight.  For 
matter  in  motion  to  pursue  continuously  the  exact  line  in 
which  it  sets  out,  the  forces  of  attraction  and  repulsion  must 
be  symmetrically  disposed  around  its  path ;  and  the  chances 
against  this  are  infinitely  great.  The  impossibility  of  mak- 
ing an  absolutely  true  edge  to  a  bar  of  metal — the  fact 
that  all  which  can  be  done  by  the  best  mechanical  appli- 
ances, is  to  reduce  the  irregularities  of  such  an  edge  to 
amounts  that  cannot  be  perceived  without  magnifiers — suffi- 
ciently exemplifies  how,  in  consequence  of  the  unsymmetri- 
cal  distribution  of  forces  around  the  line  of  movement,  the 
movement  is  rendered  more  or  less  indirect.  It 

may  be  well  to  add  that  in  proportion  as  the  forces  at  work 
are  numerous  and  varied,  the  curve  a  moving  body  describes 
is  necessarily  complex:  witness  the  contrast  between  the 
flight  of  an  arrow  and  the  gyrations  of  a  stick  tossed  about 
by  breakers. 

As  a  step  towards  unification  of  knowledge  we  have  now 
to  trace  these  general  laws  throughout  the  various  orders  of 
changes  which  the  Cosmos  exhibits.  We  have  to  note  how 
every  motion  takes  place  along  the  line  of  greatest  traction, 
of  least  resistance,  or  of  their  resultant ;  how  the  setting  up 
of  motion  along  a  certain  line,  becomes  a  cause  of  its  con- 
tinuance along  that  line ;  how,  nevertheless,  change  of  rela- 
tions to  external  forces,  always  renders  this  line  indirect ;  and 
how  the  degree  of  its  indirectness  increases  with  every  addi- 
tion to  the  number  of  influences  at  work. 

§  76.  If  we  assume  the  first  stage  in  nebular  condensa- 
tion to  be  the  precipitation  into  flocculi  of  denser  matter  pre- 
viously diffused  through  a  rarer  medium,  (a  supposition  both 
physically  justified,  and  in  harmony  with  certain  astronomi- 
cal observations,)  we  shall  find  that  nebular  motion  is  inter- 


THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION.  237 

pretable  in  pursuance  of  the  above  general  laws.  Each  por- 
tion of  such  vapour-like  matter  must  begin  to  move  towards 
the  common  centre  of  gravity.  The  tractive  forces  which 
would  of  themselves  carry  it  in  a  straight  line  to  the  centre 
of  gravity,  are  opposed  by  the  resistant  forces  of  the  medium 
through  which  it  is  drawn.  The  direction  of  movement 
must  be  the  resultant  of  these — a  resultant  which,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  unsymmetrical  form  of  the  flocculus,  must  be 
a  curve  directed,  not  to  the  centre  of  gravity,  but  towards 
one  side  of  it.  And  it  may  be  readily  shown  that  in  an  aggre- 
gation of  such  flocculi,  severally  thus  moving,  there  must, 
by  composition  of  forces,  eventually  result  a  rotation  of  the 
whole  nebula  in  one  direction. 

Merely  noting  this  hypothetical  illustration  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  how  the  law  applies  to  the  case  of  nebular 
evolution,  supposing  it  to  have  taken  place,  let  us  pass  to 
the  phenomena  of  the  Solar  System  as  now  exhibited.  Here 
the  general  principles  above  set  forth  are  every  instant  ex- 
emplified. Each  planet  and  satellite  has  a  momentum  which 
would,  if  acting  alone,  carry  it  forward  in  the  direction  it  is 
at  any  instant  pursuing.  This  momentum  hence  acts  as  a 
resistance  to  motion  in  any  other  direction.  Each  planet 
and  satellite,  however,  is  drawn  by  a  force  which,  if  unop- 
posed, would  take  it  in  a  straight  line  towards  its  primary. 
And  the  resultant  of  these  two  forces  is  that  curve  which  it 
describes — a  curve  manifestly  consequent  on  the  unsym- 
metrical distribution  of  the  forces  around  its  path.  This 
path,  when  more  closely  examined,  supplies  us  with  further 
illustrations.  For  it  is  not  an  exact  circle  or  ellipse;  which 
it  would  be  were  the  tangential  and  centripetal  forces  the 
only  ones  concerned.  Adjacent  members  of  the  Solar  Sys- 
tem, ever  varying  in  their  relative  positions,  cause  wdiat  we 
call  perturbations;  that  is,  slight  divergences  in  various  direc- 
tions from  that  circle  or  ellipse  which  the  two  chief  forces 
would  produce.  These  perturbations  severally  show  us  in 
minor  degrees,  how  the  line  of  movement  is  the  resultant 


238  THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION. 

of  all  the  forces  engaged;  and  how  this  line  becomes 
more  complicated  in  proportion  as  the  forces  are  multi- 
plied. If  instead  of  the  motions  of  the  planets  and  satel- 
lites as  wholes,  we  consider  the  motions  of  their  parts,  we 
meet  with  comparatively  complex  illustrations.  Every  por- 
tion of  the  Earth's  substance  in  its  daily  rotation,  describes  a 
curve  which  is  in  the  main  a  resultant  of  that  resistance 
which  checks  its  nearer  approach  to  the  centre  of  gravity, 
that  momentum  which  would  carry  it  off  at  a  tangent,  and 
those  forces  of  gravitation  and  cohesion  which  keep  it  from 
being  so  carried  off.  If  this  axial  motion  be  compounded 
with  the  orbital  motion,  the  course  of  each  part  is  seen  to  be 
a  much  more  involved  one.  And  we  find  it  to  have  a  still 
greater  complication  on  taking  into  account  that  lunar  at- 
traction which  mainly  produces  the  tides  and  the  precession 
of  the  equinoxes. 

§  77.  We  come  next  to  terrestrial  changes:  present  ones 
as  observed,  and  past  ones  as  inferred  by  geologists.  Let  us 
set  out  with  the  hourly-occurring  alterations  in  the  Earth's 
atmosphere ;  descend  to  the  slower  alterations  in  progress  on 
its  surface;  and  then  to  the  still  slower  ones  going  on  be- 
neath. 

Masses  of  air,  absorbing  heat  from  surfaces  warmed  by 
the  sun,  expand,  and  so  lessen  the  weight  of  the  atmospheric 
columns  of  which  they  are  parts.  Hence  they  offer  to  ad- 
jacent atmospheric  columns,  diminished  lateral  resistance; 
and  these,  moving  in  the  directions  of  the  diminished  resist- 
ance, displace  the  expanded  air;  while  this,  pursuing  an  up- 
ward course,  displays  a  motion  along  that  line  in  which  there 
is  least  pressure.  When  again,  by  the  ascent  of  such  heated 
masses  from  extended  areas  like  the  torrid  zone,  there  is  pro- 
duced at  the  upper  surface  of  the  atmosphere,  a  protuber- 
ance beyond  the  limits  of  equilibrium — when  the  air  form- 
ing this  protuberance  begins  to  overflow  laterally  towards 
the  poles;  it  does  so  because,  while  the  tractive  force  of  the 


THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION.  239 

Earth  is  nearly  the  same,  the  lateral  resistance  is  greatly 
diminished.  And  throughout  the  course  of  each  current 
thus  generated,  as  well  as  throughout  the  course  of  each 
counter-current  flowing  into  the  vacuum  that  is  left,  the 
direction  is  always  the  resultant  of  the  Earth's  tractive  force 
and  the  resistance  offered  by  the  surrounding  masses  of  air : 
modified  only  by  conflict  with  other  currents  similarly  de- 
termined, and  by  collision  with  prominences  on  the  Earth's 
crust.  The  movements  of  water,  in  both  its  gaseous 

and  liquid  states,  furnish  further  examples.  In  conform- 
ity with  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat,  it  may  be  shown 
that  evaporation  is  the  escape  of  particles  of  water  in  the 
direction  of  least  resistance;  and  that  as  the  resistance 
(which  is  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  water  diffused  in  a  gase- 
ous state)  diminishes,  the  evaporation  increases.  Converse- 
ly, that  rushing  together  of  particles  called  condensation, 
which  takes  place  when  any  portion  of  atmospheric  vapour 
has  its  temperature  much  lowered,  may  be  interpreted  as  a 
diminution  of  the  mutual  pressure  among  the  condensing 
particles,  while  the  pressure  of  surrounding  particles  re- 
mains the  same ;  and  so  is  a  motion  taking  place  in  the  direc- 
tion of  lessened  resistance.  In  the  course  followed  by  the 
resulting  rain-drops,  we  have  one  of  the  simplest  instances 
of  the  joint  effect  of  the  two  antagonist  forces.  The 
Earth's  attraction,  and  the  resistance  of  atmospheric  cur- 
rents ever  varying  in  direction  and  intensity,  give  as  their 
resultants,  lines  which  incline  to  the  horizon  in  countless 
different  degrees  and  undergo  perpetual  variations.  More 
clearly  still  is  the  law  exemplified  by  these  same  rain-drops 
when  they  reach  the  ground.  In  the  course  they  take  while 
trickling  over  its  surface,  in  every  rill,  in  every  larger  stream, 
and  in  every  river,  we  see  them  descending  as  straight  as  the 
antagonism  of  surrounding  objects  permits.  From  moment 
to  moment,  the  motion  of  water  towards  the  Earth's  centre 
is  opposed  by  the  solid  matter  around  and  under  it;  and 
from    moment    to    moment    its    route    is    the    resultant 


240  THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION. 

of  the  lines  of  greatest  traction  and.  least  resistance.  So  far 
from  a  cascade  furnishing,  as  it  seems  to  do,  an  exception, 
it  furnishes  but  another  illustration.  For  though  all  solid 
obstacles  to  a  vertical  fall  of  the  water  are  removed,  yet  the 
water's  horizontal  momentum  is  an  obstacle;  and  the  par- 
abola in  which  the  stream  leaps  from  the  projecting  ledge, 
is  generated  by  the  combined  gravitation  and  momen- 
tum. It  may  be  well  just  to  draw  attention  to  the 
degree  of  complexity  here  produced  in  the  line  of  move- 
ment by  the  variety  of  forces  at  work.  In  atmospheric  cur- 
rents, and  still  more  clearly  in  water-courses  (to  which 
might  be  added  ocean-streams),  the  route  followed  is  too 
complex  to  be  defined,  save  as  a  curve  of  three  dimensions 
with  an  ever  varying  equation. 

The  Earth's  solid  crust  undergoes  changes  that  supply 
another  group  of  illustrations.  The  denudation  of  lands 
and  the  depositing  of  the  removed  sediment  in  new  strata  at 
the  bottom  of  seas  and  lakes,  is  a  process  throughout  which 
motion  is  obviously  determined  in  the  same  way  as  is  that 
of  the  water  affecting  the  transport.  Again,  though  we  have 
no  direct  inductive  proof  that  the  forces  classed  as  igneous, 
expend  themselves  along  lines  of  least  resistance ;  yet  what 
little  we  know  of  them  is  in  harmony  with  the  belief  that 
they  do  so.  Earthquakes  continually  revisit  the  same  locali- 
ties, and  special  tracts  undergo  for  long  periods  together 
successive  elevations  or  subsidences, — facts  which  imply 
that  already-fractured  portions  of  the  Earth's  crust  are 
those  most  prone  to  yield  under  the  pressure  caused  by  fur- 
ther contractions.  The  distribution  of  volcanoes  along  cer- 
tain lines,  as  Avell  as  the  frequent  recurrence  of  eruptions 
from  the  same  vents,  are  facts  of  like  meaning. 

§  78.  That  organic  growth  takes  place  in  the  direction 
of  least  resistance,  is  a  proposition  that  has  been  set  forth 
and  illustrated  by  Mr.  James  Hinton,  in  the  Medico-  Chirur- 
gical  Review  for  October,  1858.     After  detailing  a  few  of 


THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION.  241 

the  early  observations  which  led  him  to  this  generalization, 
he  formulates  it  thus: — 

"  Organic  form  is  the  result  of  motion." 
"  Motion  takes  the  direction  of  least  resistance." 
"  Therefore  organic  form  is  the  result  of  motion  in  the 
direction  of  least  resistance." 

After  an  elucidation  and  defence  of  this  position,  Mr. 
Hinton  proceeds  to  interpret,  in  conformity  with  it,  sun- 
dry phenomena  of  development.  Speaking  of  plants  he 
says : — 

"  The  formation  of  the  root  furnishes  a  beautiful  illus- 
tration of  the  law  of  least  resistance,  for  it  grows  by  insinuat- 
ing itself,  cell  by  cell,  through  the  interstices  of  the  soil;  it 
is  by  such  minute  additions  that  it  increases,  winding  and 
twisting  whithersoever  the  obstacles  it  meets  in  its  path 
determine,  and  growing  there  most,  where  the  nutritive 
materials  are  added  to  it  most  abundantly.  As  we  look  on 
the  roots  of  a  mighty  tree,  it  appears  to  us  as  if  they  had 
forced  themselves  with  giant  violence  into  the  solid  earth. 
But  it  is  not  so ;  they  were  led  on  gently,  cell  added  to  cell, 
softly  as  the  dews  descended,  and  the  loosened  earth  made 
way.  Once  formed,  indeed,  they  expand  with  an  enormous 
power,  but  the  spongy  condition  of  the  growing  radicles 
utterly  forbids  the  supposition  that  they  are  forced  into  the 
earth.  Is  it  not  probable,  indeed,  that  the  enlargement  of 
the  roots  already  formed  may  crack  the  surrounding  soil, 
and  help  to  make  the  interstices  into  which  the  new  rootlets 
grow? "     *     *     * 

"  Throughout  almost  the  whole  of  organic  nature  the 
spiral  form  is  more  or  less  distinctly  marked.  !Now,  motion 
under  resistance  takes  a  spiral  direction,  as  may  be  seen  by 
the  motion  of  a  body  rising  or  falling  through  water.  A 
bubble  rising  rapidly  in  water  describes  a  spiral  closely  re- 
sembling a  corkscrew,  and  a  body  of  moderate  specific  grav- 
ity dropped  into  water  may  be  seen  to  fall  in  a  curved  direc- 
tion, the  spiral  tendency  of  which  may  be  distinctly  ob- 


242  THE  DIRECTION   OF  MOTION. 

served.  *  ":':"  *  In  this  prevailing  spiral  form  of  organic 
bodies,  therefore,  it  appears  to  me,  that  there  is  presented  a 
strong  prima  facie  case  for  the  view  I  have  maintained. 
*  *  *  The  spiral  form  of  the  branches  of  many  trees  is 
very  apparent,  and  the  universally  spiral  arrangement  of  the 
leaves  around  the  stem  of  plants  needs  only  to  he  referred 
to.  *  '::'  *  The  heart  commences  as  a  spiral  turn,  and  in 
its  perfect  form  a  manifest  spiral  may  be  traced  through 
the  left  ventricle,  right  ventricle,  right  auricle,  left  auricle 
and  appendix.  And  what  is  the  spiral  turn  in  which  the 
heart  commences  but  a  necessary  result  of  the  lengthening, 
under  a  limit,  of  the  cellular  mass  of  which  it  then  con- 
sists? "  *  *  * 

"  Every  one  must  have  noticed  the  peculiar  curling  up  of 
the  young  leaves  of  the  common  fern.  The  appearance  is  as 
if  the  leaf  were  rolled  up,  but  in  truth  this  form  is  merely 
a  phenomenon  of  growth.  The  curvature  results  from 
the  increase  of  the  leaf,  it  is  only  another  form  of  the 
wrinkling  up,  or  turning  at  right  angles  by  extension  under 
limit.'3 

"  The  rolling  up  or  imbrication  of  the  petals  in  many 
flower-buds  is  a  similar  thing;  at  an  early  period  the  small 
petals  may  be  seen  lying  side  by  side,  afterwards  growing 
within  the  capsule,  they  become  folded  round  one  an- 
other/'  *  *  * 

"  If  a  flower-bud  be  opened  at  a  sufficiently  early  period, 
the  stamens  will  be  found  as  if  moulded  in  the  cavity  be- 
tween the  pistil  and  the  corolla,  which  cavity  the  anther-  ex- 
actly till;  the  stalks  lengthen  at  an  after  period.  I  have 
noticed  also  in  a  few  instances,  that  in  those  flowers  in  which 
the  petals  are  imbricated,  or  twisted  together,  the  pistil  is 
tapering  as  growing  up  between  the  petals;  in  some  flowers 
which  have  the  petals  so  arranged  in  the  bud  as  to  form  a 
dome  (as  the  hawthorn;  e.  g.),  the  pi-til  i<  flattened  at  the 
apex,  and  in  the  bud  occupies  a  space  precisely  limited  by 
the  -taniens  below,  and  the  enclosing  petals  above  and  at 


THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION.  243 

the  sides.  I  have  not,  however,  satisfied  myself  that  this 
holds  good  in  all  cases." 

Without  endorsing  all  Mr.  Hinton's  illustrations,  to 
some  of  which  exception  might  be  taken,  his  conclusion 
may  be  accepted  as  a  large  instalment  of  the  truth.  It  is, 
however,  to  be  remarked,  that  in  the  case  of  organic  growth, 
as  in  all  other  cases,  the  line  of  movement  is  in  strictness 
the  resultant  of  tractive  and  resistant  forces;  and  that  the 
tractive  forces  here  form  so  considerable  an  element  that 
the  formula  is  scarcely  complete  without  them.  The  shapes 
of  plants  are  manifestly  modified  by  gravitation :  the  direc- 
tion of  each  branch  is  not  what  it  would  have  been  were  the 
tractive  force  of  the  Earth  absent;  and  every  flower  and 
leaf  is  somewhat  altered  in  the  course  of  development  by  the 
weight  of  its  parts.  Though  in  animals  such  effects  are  less 
conspicuous,  yet  the  instances  in  which  flexible  organs  have 
their  directions  in  great  measure  determined  by  gravity, 
justify  the  assertion  that  throughout  the  whole  organism 
the  forms  of  parts  must  be  affected  by  this  force. 

The  organic  movements  which  constitute  growth,  are 
not,  however,  the  only  organic  movements  to  be  interpreted. 
There  are  also  those  which  constitute  function.  And 
throughout  these  the  same  general  principles  are  discern- 
ible. That  the  vessels  along  which  blood,  lymph,  bile,  and 
all  the  secretions,  find  their  ways,  are  channels  of  least  re- 
sistance, is  a  fact  almost  too  conspicuous  to  be  named  as  an 
illustration.  Less  conspicuous,  however,  is  the  truth,  that 
the  currents  setting  along  these  vessels  are  affected  by  the 
tractive  force  of  the  Earth:  witness  varicose  veins;  wit- 
ness the  relief  to  an  inflamed  part  obtained  by  raising  it; 
witness  the  congestion  of  head  and  face  produced  by  stoop- 
ing. And  in  the  fact  that  dropsy  in  the  legs  gets  greater  by 
day  and  decreases  at  night,  while,  conversely,  that  oedema- 
tous  fullness  under  the  eyes  common  in  debility,  grows 
worse  during  the  hours  of  reclining  and  decreases  after  get- 
ting up,  shows  us  how  the  transudation  of  fluid  through 


24:4:  THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION. 

the  walls  of  the  capillaries,  varies  according  as  change  of 
position  changes  the  effect  of  gravity  in  different  parts  of  the 
body. 

It  may  be  well  in  passing  just  to  note  the  bearing  of  the 
principle  on  the  development  of  species.  From  a  dynamic 
point  of  view,  "  natural  selection "  implies  structural 
changes  along  lines  of  least  resistance.  The  multiplication 
of  any  kind  of  plant  or  animal  in  localities  that  are  favour- 
able to  it,  is  a  growth  where  the  antagonistic  forces  are  less 
than  elsewhere.  And  the  preservation  of  varieties  that  suc- 
ceed better  than  their  allies  in  coping  with  surrounding  con- 
ditions, is  the  continuance  of  vital  movement  in  those  direc- 
tions where  the  obstacles  to  it  are  most  eluded. 

§  79.  Throughout  the  phenomena  of  mind  the  law 
enunciated  is  not  so  readily  established.  In  a  large  part  of 
them,  as  those  of  thought  and  emotion,  there  is  no  percepti- 
ble movement.  Even  in  sensation  and  volition,  which  show 
us  in  one  part  of  the  body  an  effect  produced  by  a  force  ap- 
plied to  another  part,  the  intermediate  movement  is  infer- 
ential rather  than  visible.  Such  indeed  are  the  difficulties 
that  it  is  not  possible  here  to  do  more  than  briefly  indicate 
the  proofs  which  might  be  given  did  space  permit. 

Supposing  the  various  forces  throughout  an  organism  to 
be  previously  in  equilibrium,  then  any  part  which  becomes 
the  seat  of  a  further  force,  added  or  liberated,  must  be  one 
from  which  the  force,  being  resisted  by  smaller  forces 
around,  will  initiate  motion  towards  some  other  part  of  the 
organism.  If  elsewhere  in  the  organism  there  is  a  point  at 
which  force  is  being  expended,  and  which  so  is  becoming 
minus  a  force  which  it  before  had,  instead  of  plus  a  force 
which  it  before  had  not,  and  thus  is  made  a  point  at  which 
the  re-action  against  surrounding  forces  is  diminished ;  then, 
manifestly,  a  motion  taking  place  between  the  first  and  the 
last  of  these  points  is  a  motion  along  the  line  of  least  resist- 
ance.   Now  a  sensation  implies  a  force  added  to,  or  evolved 


THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION.  245 

in,  that  part  of  the  organism  which  is  its  seat;  while  a 
mechanical  movement  implies  an  expenditure  or  loss  of 
force  in  that  part  of  the  organism  which  is  its  seat.  Hence 
if,  as  we  find  to  be  the  fact,  motion  is  habitually  propagated 
from  those  parts  of  an  organism  to  which  the  external  world 
adds  forces  in  the  shape  of  nervous  impressions,  to  those 
parts  of  an  organism  which  react  on  the  external  world 
through  muscular  contractions,  it  is  simply  a  fulfilment  of 
the  law  above  enunciated.  From  this  general  con- 

clusion we  may  pass  to  a  more  special  one.  When  there  is 
anything  in  the  circumstances  of  an  animal's  life,  involv- 
ing that  a  sensation  in  one  particular  place  is  habitually  fol- 
lowed by  a  contraction  in  another  particular  place — when 
there  is  thus  a  frequently-repeated  motion  through  the  or- 
ganism between  these  places ;  what  must  be  the  result  as  re- 
spects the  line  along  which  the  motions  take  place  ?  Restora- 
tion of  equilibrium  between  the  points  at  which  the  forces 
have  been  increased  and  decreased,  must  take  place  through 
some  channel.  If  this  channel  is  affected  by  the  discharge — 
if  the  obstructive  action  of  the  tissues  traversed,  involves  any 
reaction  upon  them,  deducting  from  their  obstructive 
power;  then  a  subsequent  motion  between  these  two  points 
will  meet  with  less  resistance  along  this  channel  than  the 
previous  motion  met  with;  and  will  consequently  take  this 
channel  still  more  decidedly.  If  so,  every  repetition  will 
still  further  diminish  the  resistance  offered  by  this  route; 
and  hence  will  gradually  be  formed  between  the  two  a  per- 
manent line  of  communication,  differing  greatly  from  the 
surrounding  tissue  in  respect  of  the  ease  with  which  force 
traverses  it.  We  see,  therefore,  that  if  between  a  particular 
impression  and  a  particular  motion  associated  with  it,  there 
is  established  a  connexion  producing  what  is  called  reflex 
action,  the  law  that  motion  follows  the  line  of  least  resist- 
ance, and  that,  if  the  conditions  remain  constant,  resistance 
in  any  direction  is  diminished  by  motion  occurring  in  that 
direction,  supplies  an  explanation.  Without  fur- 


240  THE  DIRECTION   OF  MOTION. 

tlier  details  it  will  be  manifest  that  a  like  interpretation 
niay  be  given  to  the  succession  of  all  other  nervous  changes. 
If  in  the  surrounding  world  there  are  objects,  attributes,  or 
actions,  that  usually  occur  together,  the  effects  severally 
produced  by  them  in  the  organism  will  become  so  connected 
by  those  repetitions  which  we  call  experience,  that  they  also 
will  occur  together.  In  proportion  to  the  frequency  with 
which  any  external  connexion  of  phenomena  is  experienced, 
will  be  the  strength  of  the  answering  internal  connexion  of 
nervous  states.  Thus  there  will  arise  all  degrees  of  cohesion 
among  nervous  states,  as  there  are  all  degrees  of  common- 
ness among  the  surrounding  co-existences  and  sequences 
that  generate  them:  whence  must  result  a  general  corre- 
spondence between  associated  ideas  and  associated  actions  in 
the  environment.* 

The  relation  between  emotions  and  actions  may  be  simi- 
larly construed.  As  a  first  illustration  let  us  observe  what 
happens  with  emotions  that  are  undirected  by  volitions. 
These,  like  feelings  in  general,  expend  themselves  in  gen- 
erating organic  changes,  and  chiefly  in  muscular  contrac- 
tions. As  was  pointed  out  in  the  last  chapter,  there  result 
movements  of  the  involuntary  and  voluntary  muscles,  that 
are  great  in  proportion  as  the  emotions  are  strong.  It  re- 
mains here  to  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  order  in 
which  these  muscles  are  affected  is  explicable  only  on  the 
principle  above  set  forth.  Thus,  a  pleasurable  or  painful 
state  of  mind  of  but  slight  intensity,  does  little  more  than 
increase  the  pulsations  of  the  heart.  Why?  For  the  rea- 
son that  the  relation  between  nervous  excitement  and  vas- 
cular contraction,  being  common  to  every  genus  and  species 
of  feeling,  is  the  one  of  most  frequent  repetition ;  that  hence 
the  nervous  connexion  is,  in  the  way  above  shown,  the  one 

*  This  paragraph  is  a  re-statement,  somewhat  amplified,  of  an  idea  set 
forth  in  the  Medico -Chirurgical  Review  for  January,  1859  (pp.  189  and  190); 
and  contains  the  germ  of  the  intended  fifth  part  of  the  Principles,  of  Psy- 
chology, which  was  withheld  for  the  reasons  given  in  the  preface  to  that  work. 


THE   DIRECTION  OF  MOTION.  247 

which  offers  the  least  resistance  to  a  discharge ;  and  is  there- 
fore the  one  along  which  a  feeble  force  produces  motion. 
A  sentiment  or  passion  that  is  somewhat  stronger,  affects 
not  only  the  heart  but  the  muscles  of  the  face,  and  espe- 
cially those  around  the  mouth.  Here  the  like  explanation 
applies;  since  these  muscles,  being  both  comparatively 
small,  and,  for  purposes  of  speech,  perpetually  used,  offer 
less  resistance  than  other  voluntary  muscles  to  the  nervo- 
motor  force.  By  a  further  increase  of  emotion  the  respira- 
tory and  vocal  muscles  become  perceptibly  excited.  Final- 
ly, under  strong  passion,  the  muscles  in  general  of  the 
trunk  and  limbs  are  violently  contracted.  Without  saying 
that  the  facts  can  be  thus  interpreted  in  all  their  details  (a 
task  requiring  data  impossible  to  obtain)  it  may  be  safely 
said  that  the  order  of  excitation  is  from  muscles  that  are 
small  and  frequently  acted  on,  to  those  which  are  larger  and 
less  frequently  acted  on.  The  single  instance  of  laughter, 
which  is  an  undirected  discharge  of  feeling  that  affects  first 
the  muscles  round  the  mouth,  then  those  of  the  vocal  and 
respiratory  apparatus,  then  those  of  the  limbs,  and  then 
those  of  the  spine;*  suffices  to  show  that  when  no  special 
route  is  opened  for  it,  a  force  evolved  in  the  nervous  centres 
produces  motion  along  channels  which  offer  the  least  resist- 
ance, and  if  it  is  too  great  to  escape  by  these,  produces  mo- 
tion along  channels  offering  successively  greater  resistance. 
Probably  it  will  be  thought  impossible  to  extend  this 
reasoning  so  as  to  include  volitions.  Yet  we  are  not  without 
evidence  that  the  transition  from  special  desires  to  special 
muscular  acts,  conforms  to  the  same  principle.  It  may  be 
shown  that  the  mental  antecedents  of  a  voluntary  move- 
ment, are  antecedents  which  temporarily  make  the  line 
along  which  this  movement  takes  place,  the  line  of  least  re- 
sistance. For  a  volition,  suggested  as  it  necessarily  is  by 
some  previous  thought  connected  with  it  by  associations 

*  For  details  see  a  paper  on  "  The  Physiology  of  Laughter,"  published  in 
MacmillarCs  Magazine  for  March  1860. 


248  THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION. 

that  determine  the  transition,  is  itself  a  representation  of  the 
movements  that  are  willed,  and  of  their  sequences.  But  to 
represent  in  consciousness  certain  of  our  own  movements, 
is  partially  to  arouse  the  sensations  accompanying  such 
movements,  inclusive  of  those  of  muscular  tension — is  par- 
tially to  excite  the  appropriate  motor-nerves  and  all  the 
other  nerves  implicated.  That  is  to  say,  the  volition  is  itself 
an  incipient  discharge  along  a  line  which  previous  experi- 
ences have  rendered  a  line  of  least  resistance.  And  the 
passing  of  volition  into  action  is  simply  a  completion  of  the 
discharge. 

One  corollary  from  this  must  be  noted  before  proceed- 
ing ;  namely,  that  the  particular  set  of  muscular  movements 
by  which  any  object  of  desire  is  reached,  are  movements  im- 
plying the  smallest  total  of  forces  to  be  overcome.  As  each 
feeling  generates  motion  along  the  line  of  least  resistance,  it 
is  tolerably  clear  that  a  group  of  feelings,  constituting  a 
more  or  less  complex  desire,  will  generate  motion  along  a 
series  of  lines  of  least  resistance.  That  is  to  say,  the  desired 
end  will  be  achieved  with  the  smallest  expenditure  of  effort. 
Should  it  be  objected  that  through  want  of  knowledge 
or  want  of  skill,  a  man  often  pursues  the  more  laborious  of 
two  courses,  and  so  overcomes  a  larger  total  of  opposing 
forces  than  was  necessary ;  the  reply  is,  that  relatively  to  his 
mental  state  the  course  he  takes  is  that  which  presents  the 
fewest  difficulties.  Though  there  is  another  which  in  the 
abstract  is  easier,  yet  his  ignorance  of  it,  or  inability  to 
adopt  it,  is,  physically  considered,  the  existence  of  an  insu- 
perable obstacle  to  the  discharge  of  his  energies  in  that  direc- 
tion. Experience  obtained  by  himself,  or  communicated 
by  others,  has  not  established  in  him  such  channels  of  nerv- 
ous communication  as  are  required  to  make  this  better 
course  the  course  of  least  resistance  to  him. 

§  80.  As  in  individual  animals,  inclusive  of  man,  motion 
follows  lines  of  least  resistance,  it  is  to  be  inferred  that 


THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION.  249 

among  aggregations  of  men,  the  like  will  hold  good.  The 
changes  in  a  society,  being  due  to  the  joint  actions  of  its 
members,  the  courses  of  such  changes  will  be  determined 
as  are  those  of  all  other  changes  wrought  by  composition 
of  forces. 

Thus  when  we  contemplate  a  society  as  an  organism,  and 
observe  the  direction  of  its  growth,  we  find  this  direction  to 
be  that  in  which  the  average  of  opposing  forces  is  the  least. 
Its  units  have  energies  to  be  expended  in  self-maintenance 
and  reproduction.  These  energies  are  met  by  various  en- 
vironing energies  that  are  antagonistic  to  them — those  of 
geological  origin,  those  of  climate,  of  wild  animals,  of  other 
human  races  with  whom  they  are  at  enmity  or  in  competi- 
tion. And  the  tracts  the  society  spreads  over,  are  those  in 
which  there  is  the  smallest  total  antagonism.  Or,  reducing 
the  matter  to  its  ultimate  terms,  we  may  say  that  these  social 
units  have  jointly  and  severally  to  preserve  themselves  and 
their  offspring  from  those  inorganic  and  organic  forces 
which  are  ever  tending  to  destroy  them  (either  indirectly 
by  oxidation  and  by  undue  abstraction  of  heat,  or  directly 
by  bodily  mutilation) ;  that  these  forces  are  either  counter- 
acted by  others  which  are  available  in  the  shape  of  food, 
clothing,  habitations,  and  appliances  of  defence,  or  are,  as 
far  as  may  be,  eluded ;  and  that  population  spreads  in  which- 
ever directions  there  is  the  readiest  escape  from  these  forces, 
or  the  least  exertion  in  obtaining  the  materials  for  resisting 
them,  or  both.  For  these  reasons  it  happens  that  fer- 

tile valleys  where  water  and  vegetal  produce  abound,  are 
early  peopled.  Sea-shores,  too,  supplying  a  large  amount 
of  easily-gathered  food,  are  lines  along  which  mankind 
have  commonly  spread.  The  general  fact  that,  so  far  as 
we  can  judge  from  the  traces  left  by  them,  large  societies 
first  appeared  in  those  tropical  regions  where  the  fruits  of 
the  earth  are  obtainable  with  comparatively  little  exertion, 
and  where  the  cost  of  maintaining  bodily  heat  is  but  slight, 
is  a  fact  of  like  meaning.  And  to  these  instances  may  be 
18 


250  THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION. 

added  the  allied  one  daily  furnished  by  emigration;  which 
we  see  going  on  towards  countries  presenting  the  fewest  ob- 
stacles to  the  self-preservation  of  individuals,  and  therefore 
to  national  growth.  Similarly  with  that  resistance 

to  the  movements  of  a  society  which  neighbouring  societies 
offer.  Each  of  the  tribes  or  nations  inhabiting  any  region, 
increases  in  numbers  until  it  outgrows  its  means  of  subsist- 
ence. In  each  there  is  thus  a  force  ever  pressing  outwards 
on  to  adjacent  areas — a  force  antagonized  by  like  forces  in 
the  tribes  or  nations  occupying  those  areas.  And  the  ever- 
recurring  wars  that  result — the  conquests  of  weaker  tribes 
or  nations,  and  the  over-running  of  their  territories  by  the 
victors,  are  instances  of  social  movements  taking  place  in 
the  directions  of  least  resistance.  Xor  do  the  conquered 
peoples,  when  they  escape  extermination  or  enslavement, 
fail  to  show  us  movements  that  are  similarly  determined. 
For  migrating  as  they  do  to  less  fertile  regions — taking  ref- 
uge in  deserts  or  among  mountains — moving  in  a  direction 
where  the  resistance  to  social  growth  is  comparatively  great ; 
they  still  do  this  only  under  an  excess  of  pressure  in  all  other 
directions:  the  physical  obstacles  to  self-preservation  they 
encounter,  being  really  less  than  the  obstacles  offered  by 
the  enemies  from  whom  they  fly. 

Internal  social  movements  may  also  be  thus  interpreted. 
Localities  naturally  fitted  for  producing  particular  com- 
modities— that  is,  localities  in  which  such  commodities  are 
got  at  the  least  cost  of  force — that  is,  localities  in  which  the 
desires  for  these  commodities  meet  with  the  least  resistance; 
become  localities  especially  devoted  to  the  obtainment  of 
these  commodities.  "Where  soil  and  climate  render  wheat  a 
profitable  crop,  or  a  crop  from  which  the  greatest  amount 
of  life-sustaining  power  is  gained  by  a  given  quantity  of 
effort,  the  growth  of  wheat  becomes  the  dominant  industry. 
Where  wheat  cannot  be  economically  produced,  oats,  or 
rye,  or  maize,  or  rice,  or  potatoes,  is  the  agricultural  staple. 
Along  sea-shores  men  support  themselves  with  least  effort 


THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION.  251 

by  catching  fish;  and  hence  choose  fishing  as  an  occupation. 
And  in  places  that  are  rich  in  coal  or  metallic  ores,  the  popu- 
lation, finding  that  labour  devoted  to  the  raising  of  these 
materials  brings  a  larger  return  of  food  and  clothing  than 
when  otherwise  directed,  becomes  a  population  of  mi- 
ners. This  last  instance  introduces  us  to  the  phe- 
nomena of  exchange;  which  equally  illustrate  the  general 
law.  For  the  practice  of  barter  begins  as  soon  as  it  facili- 
tates the  fulfilment  of  men's  desires,  by  diminishing  the  ex- 
ertion needed  to  reach  the  objects  of  those  desires.  When 
instead  of  growing  his  own  corn,  weaving  his  own  cloth, 
sewing  his  own  shoes,  each  man  began  to  confine  himself  to 
farming,  or  weaving,  or  shoemaking;  it  was  because  each 
found  it  more  laborious  to  make  everything  he  wanted, 
than  to  make  a  great  quantity  of  one  thing  and  barter  the 
surplus  for  the  rest:  by  exchange,  each  procured  the  neces- 
saries of  life  without  encountering  so  much  resistance. 
Moreover,  in  deciding  what  commodity  to  produce,  each 
citizen  was,  as  he  is  at  the  present  day,  guided  in  the  same 
manner.  For  besides  those  local  conditions  which  deter- 
mine whole  sections  of  a  society  towards  the  industries 
easiest  for  them,  there  are  also  individual  conditions  and  in- 
dividual aptitudes  which  to  each  citizen  render  certain 
occupations  preferable;  and  in  choosing  those  forms  of  ac- 
tivity which  their  special  circumstances  and  faculties  dic- 
tate, these  social  units  are  severally  moving  towards  the 
objects  of  their  desires  in  the  directions  which  present  to 
them  the  fewest  obstacles.  The  process  of  transfer 
which  commerce  pre-supposes,  supplies  another  series  of  ex- 
amples. So  long  as  the  forces  to  be  overcome  in  procuring 
any  necessary  of  life  in  the  district  where  it  is  consumed, 
are  less  than  the  forces  to  be  overcome  in  procuring  it 
from  an  adjacent  district,  exchange  does  not  take  place. 
But  when  the  adjacent  district  produces  it  with  an  economy 
that  is  not  out-balanced  by  cost  of  transit — when  the  dis- 
tance is  so  small  and  the  route  so  easy  that  the  labour  of 


252  THE  DIRECTION  OF   MOTION. 

conveyance  phis  the  labour  of  production  is  less  than  the 
labour  of  production  in  the  consuming  district,  transfer 
commences.  Movement  in  the  direction  of  least  resistance 
is  also  seen  in  the  establishment  of  the  channels  along  which 
intercourse  takes  place.  At  the  outset,  when  goods  are  car- 
ried on  the  backs  of  men  and  horses,  the  paths  chosen  are 
those  which  combine  shortness  with  levelness  and  freedom 
from  obstacles — those  which  are  achieved  with  the  smallest 
exertion.  And  in  the  subsequent  formation  of  each  high- 
way, the  course  taken  is  that  which  deviates  horizontally 
from  a  straight  line  so  far  only  as  is  needful  to  avoid  ver- 
tical deviations  entailing  greater  labour  in  draught.  The 
smallest  total  of  obstructive  forces  determines  the  route, 
even  in  seemingly  exceptional  cases;  as  where  a  detour  is 
made  to  avoid  the  opposition  of  a  land-owner.  All  subse- 
quent improvements,  ending  in  macadamized  roads,  canals, 
and  railways,  which  reduce  the  antagonism  of  friction  and 
gravity  to  a  minimum,  exemplify  the  same  truth.  After 
there  comes  to  be  a  choice  of  roads  between  one  point  and 
another,  we  still  see  that  the  road  chosen  is  that  along  which 
the  cost  of  transit  is  the  least:  cost  being  the  measure  of 
resistance.  Even  where,  time  being  a  consideration,  the 
more  expensive  route  is  followed,  it  is  so  because  the  loss  of 
time  involves  loss  of  force.  AVhen,  division  of 

labour  having  been  carried  to  a  considerable  extent  and 
means  of  communication  made  easy,  there  arises  a  marked 
localization  of  industries,  the  relative  growths  of  the  popu- 
lations devoted  to  them  may  be  interpreted  on  the  same 
principle.  The  influx  of  people  to  each  industrial  centre,  as 
well  as  the  rate  of  multiplication  of  those  already  inhabiting 
it,  is  determined  by  the  payment  for  labour;  that  is — by  the 
quantity  of  commodities  which  a  given  amount  of  effort  will 
obtain.  To  say  that  artisans  flock  to  places  where,  in  conse- 
quence of  facilities  for  production,  an  extra  proportion  of 
produce  can  be  given  in  the  shape  of  wages;  is  to  say  that 
they  flock  to  places  where  there  are  the  smallest  obstacles  to 


THE  DIRECTION   OF  MOTION.  253 

the  support  of  themselves  and  families.  Hence,  the  rapid 
increase  of  number  which  occurs  in  such  places,  is  really  a 
social  growth  at  points  where  the  opposing  forces  are  the 
least. 

Nor  is  the  law  less  clearly  to  be  traced  in  those  functional 
changes  daily  going  on.  The  flow  of  capital  into  businesses 
yielding  the  largest  returns;  the  buying  in  the  cheapest 
market  and  selling  in  the  dearest;  the  introduction  of  more 
economical  modes  of  manufacture ;  the  development  of  bet- 
ter agencies  for  distribution ;  and  all  those  variations  in  the 
currents  of  trade  that  are  noted  in  our  newspapers  and  tele- 
grams from  hour  to  hour ;  exhibit  movement  taking  place  in 
directions  where  it  is  met  by  the  smallest  total  of  opposing 
forces.  For  if  we  analyze  each  of  these  changes — if  instead 
of  interest  on  capital  we  read  surplus  of  products  which  re- 
mains after  maintenance  of  labourers;  if  we  so  interpret 
large  interest  or  large  surplus  to  imply  labour  expended  with 
the  greatest  results;  and  if  labour  expended  with  the  great- 
est results  means  muscular  action  so  directed  as  to  evade  ob- 
stacles as  far  as  possible;  we  see  that  all  these  commercial 
phenomena  are  complicated  motions  set  up  along  lines  of 
least  resistance. 

Objections  of  two  opposite  kinds  will  perhaps  be  made  to 
these  sociological  applications  of  the  law.  By  some  it  may 
be  said  that  the  term  force  as  here  used,  is  used  metaphori- 
cally— that  to  speak  of  men  as  impelled  in  certain  directions 
by  certain  desires,  is  a  figure  of  speech  and  not  the  statement 
of  a  physical  fact.  The  reply  is,  that  the  foregoing  illustra- 
tions are  to  be  interpreted  literally,  and  that  the  processes 
described  are  physical  ones.  The  pressure  of  hunger  is  an 
actual  force — a  sensation  implying  some  state  of  nervous 
tension;  and  the  muscular  action  which  the  sensation 
prompts  is  really  a  discharge  of  it  in  the  shape  of  bodily  mo- 
tion— a  discharge  which,  on  analyzing  the  mental  acts  in- 
volved, will  be  found  to  follow  lines  of  least  resistance. 
Hence  the  motions  of  a  society  whose  members  are  impelled 


254  THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION. 

by  this  or  any  other  desire,  are  actually,  and  not  metaphori- 
cally, to  be  understood  in  the  manner  shown.  An 
opposite  objection  may  possibly  be,  that  the  several  illustra- 
tions given  are  elaborated  truisms;  and  that  the  law  of  di- 
rection of  motion  being  once  recognized,  the  fact  that  social 
movements,  in  common  with  all  others,  must  conform  to  it, 
follows  inevitably.  To  this  it  may  be  rejoined,  that  a  mere 
abstract  assertion  that  social  movements  must  do  this,  would 
carry  no  conviction  to  the  majority;  and  that  it  is  needful 
to  show  how  they  do  it.  For  social  phenomena  to  be  unified 
with  phenomena  of  simpler  kinds,  it  is  requisite  that  such 
generalizations  as  those  of  political  economy  shall  be  reduced 
to  equivalent  propositions  expressed  in  terms  of  force  and 
motion. 

Social  movements  of  these  various  orders  severally  con- 
form to  the  two  derivative  principles  named  at  the  outset. 
In  the  first  place  we  may  observe  how,  once  set  up  in  given 
directions,  such  movements,  like  all  others,  tend  to  continue 
in  these  directions.  A  commercial  mania  or  panic,  a  current 
of  commodities,  a  social  custom,  a  political  agitation,  or  a 
popular  delusion,  maintains  its  course  for  a  long  time  after 
its  original  source  has  ceased;  and  requires  antagonistic 
forces  to  arrest  it.  In  the  second  place  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
in  proportion  to  the  complexity  of  social  forces  is  the  tor- 
tuousness  of  social  movements.  The  involved  series  of  mus- 
cular contractions  gone  through  by  the  artizan,  that  he  may 
get  the  wherewithal  to  buy  a  loaf  lying  at  the  baker's  next 
door,  show  us  how  extreme  becomes  the  indirectness  of  mo- 
tion when  the  agencies  at  work  become  very  numerous — a 
truth  still  better  illustrated  by  the  more  public  social  ac- 
tions; as  those  which  end  in  bringing  a  successful  man  of 
business,  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  into  parliament. 

§  81.  And  now  of  the  general  truth  set  forth  in  this 
chapter,  as  of  that  dealt  with  in  the  last,  let  us  ask — what  is 
our  ultimate  evidence?    Must  we  accept  it  simply  as  an  em- 


THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION.  255 

pirical  generalization?  or  may  it  be  established  as  a  corollary 
from  a  still  deeper  truth?  The  reader  will  anticipate  the 
answer.  We  shall  find  it  dedncible  from  that  datum  of 
consciousness  which  underlies  all  science. 

Suppose  several  tractive  forces,  variously  directed,  to  be 
acting  on  a  given  body.  By  what  is  known  among  mathe- 
maticians as  the  composition  of  forces,  there  may  be  found 
for  any  two  of  these,  a  single  force  of  such  amount  and 
direction  as  to  produce  on  the  body  an  exactly  equal  effect. 
If  in  the  direction  of  each  of  them  there  be  drawn  a  straight 
line,  and  if  the  lengths  of  these  two  straight  lines  be  made 
proportionate  to  the  amounts  of  the  forces;  and  if  from  the 
end  of  each  line  there  be  drawn  a  line  parallel  to  the  other, 
so  as  to  complete  a  parallelogram;  then  the  diagonal  of  this 
parallelogram  represents  the  amount  and  direction  of  a  force 
that  is  equivalent  to  the  two.  Such  a  resultant  force,  as  it  is 
called,  may  be  found  for  any  pair  of  forces  throughout  the 
group.  Similarly,  for  any  pair  of  such  resultants  a  single 
resultant  may  be  found.  And  by  repeating  this  course,  all 
of  them  may  be  reduced  to  two.  If  these  two  are  equal  and 
opposite — that  is,  if  there  is  no  line  of  greatest  traction, 
motion  does  not  take  place.  If  they  are  opposite  but  not 
equal,  motion  takes  place  in  the  direction  of  the  greater. 
And  if  they  are  neither  equal  nor  opposite,  motion  takes 
place  in  the  direction  of  their  resultant.  For  in  either  of 
these  cases  there  is  an  unantagonized  force  in  one  direction. 
And  this  residuary  force  that  is  not  neutralized  by  an  oppos- 
ing one,  must  move  the  body  in  the  direction  in  which  it  is 
acting.  To  assert  the  contrary  is  to  assert  that  a  force  can 
be  expended  without  effect — without  generating  an  equiva- 
lent force ;  and  by  so  implying  that  force  can  cease  to  exist, 
this  involves  a  denial  of  the  persistence  of  force.  It 

needs  scarcely  be  added  that  if  in  place  of  tractions  we  take 
resistances,  the  argument  equally  holds;  and  that  it  holds 
also  where  both  tractions  and  resistances  are  concerned. 
Thus  the  law  that  motion  follows  the  line  of  greatest  trac- 


256  THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION. 

tion,  or  the  line  of  least  resistance,  or  the  resultant  of  the 
two,  is  a  necessary  deduction  from  that  primordial  truth 
which  transcends  proof. 

Reduce  the  proposition  to  its  simplest  form,  and  it  be- 
comes still  more  obviously  consequent  on  the  persistence  of 
force.  Suppose  two  weights  suspended  over  a  pulley  or 
from  the  ends  of  an  equal-armed  lever;  or  better  still — sup- 
pose two  men  pulling  against  each  other.  In  such  cases  we 
say  that  the  heavier  weight  will  descend,  and  that  the 
stronger  man  will  draw  the  Aveaker  towards  him.  But  now, 
if  we  are  asked  how  wTe  knowT  which  is  the  heavier  weight  or 
the  stronger  man;  we  can  only  reply  that  it  is  the  one  pro- 
ducing motion  in  the  direction  of  its  pull.  Our  only  evi- 
dence of  excess  of  force  is  the  movement  it  produces.  But  if 
of  two  opposing  tractions  we  can  know  one  as  greater  than 
the  other  only  by  the  motion  it  generates  in  its  own  direc- 
tion, then  the  assertion  that  motion  occurs  in  the  direction 
of  greatest  traction  is  a  truism. '  "When,  going  a  step  further 
back,  we  seek  a  warrant  for  the  assumption  that  of  the  two 
conflicting  forces,  that  is  the  greater  which  produces  mo- 
tion in  its  own  direction,  we  find  no  other  than  the  con- 
sciousness that  such  part  of  the  greater  force  as  is  unneutral- 
ized  by  the  lesser,  must  produce  its  effect — the  consciousness 
that  this  residuary  force  cannot  disappear,  but  must  mani- 
fest itself  in  some  equivalent  change — the  consciousness 
that  force  is  persistent.  Here  too,  as  before,  it  may 

be  remarked  that  no  amount  of  varied  illustrations,  like 
those  of  which  this  chapter  mainly  consists,  can  give  greater 
certainty  to  the  conclusion  thus  immediately  drawn  from 
the  ultimate  datum  of  consciousness.  For  in  all  cases,  as  in 
the  simpler  ones  just  given,  we  can  identify  the  greatest 
force  only  by  the  resulting  motion.  It  is  impossible  for  us 
ever  to  get  evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  motion  in  any 
other  direction  than  that  of  the  greatest  force;  since  our 
measure  of  relative  greatness  among  forces  is  their  relative 
power  of  generating  motion.     And  clearly,  while  the  com- 


THE  DIRECTION  OF  MOTION.  257 

parative  greatness  of  forces  is  thus  determined,  no  multipli- 
cation of  instances  can  add  certainty  to  a  law  of  direction  of 
movement  which  follows  immediately  from  the  persistence 
of  force. 

From  this  same  primordial  truth,  too,  may  be  deduced 
the  principle  that  motion  once  set  up  along  any  line,  be- 
comes itself  a  cause  of  subsequent  motion  along  that  line. 
The  mechanical  axiom  that,  if  left  to  itself,  matter  moving 
in  any  direction  will  continue  in  that  direction  with  undi- 
minished velocity,  is  but  an  indirect  assertion  of  the  persist- 
ence of  force;  since  it  is  an  assertion  that  the  force  mani- 
fested in  the  transfer  of  a  body  along  a  certain  length  of  a 
certain  line  in  a  certain  time,  cannot  disappear  without  pro- 
ducing some  equal  manifestation — a  manifestation  which, 
in  the  absence  of  conflicting  forces,  must  be  a  further  trans- 
fer in  the  same  direction  at  the  same  velocity.  In 
the  case  of  matter  traversing  matter  the  like  inference  is 
necessitated.  Here  indeed  the  actions  are  much  more  com- 
plicated. A  liquid  that  follows  a  certain  channel  through 
or  over  a  solid,  as  water  along  the  Earth's  surface,  loses  part 
of  its  motion  in  the  shape  of  heat,  through  friction  and  col- 
lision with  the  matters  forming  its  bed.  A  further  amount 
of  its  motion  may  be  absorbed  in  overcoming  forces  which 
it  liberates;  as  when  it  loosens  a  mass  which  falls  into,  and 
blocks  up,  its  channel.  But  after  these  deductions  by  trans- 
formation into  other  modes  of  force,  any  further  deduction 
from  the  motion  of  the  water  is  at  the  expense  of  a  reaction 
on  the  channel,  which  by  so  much  diminishes  its  obstructive 
power:  such  reaction  being  shown  in  the  motion  acquired 
by  the  detached  portions  which  are  carried  away.  The 
cutting  out  of  river-courses  is  a  perpetual  illustration  of  this 
truth.  Still  more  involved  is  the  case  of  motion 
passing  through  matter  by  impulse  from  part  to  part;  as  a 
nervous  discharge  through  animal  tissue.  Some  chemical 
change  may  be  wrought  along  the  route  traversed,  which 
may  render  it  less  fit  than  before  for  conveying  a  current. 


258  THE  DIRECTION   OF   MOTION. 

Or  the  motion  may  itself  be  in  part  metamorphosed  into 
some  obstructive  form  of  force ;  as  in  metals,  the  conducting 
power  of  which  is,  for  the  time,  decreased  by  the  heat  which 
the  passage  of  electricity  itself  generates.  The  real  ques- 
tion is,  however,  what  structural  modification,  if  any,  is  pro- 
duced throughout  the  matter  traversed,  apart  from  inci- 
dental disturbing  forces — apart  from  everything  but  the 
necessary  resistance  of  the  matter:  that,  namely,  which  re- 
sults from  the  inertia  of  its  units.  If  we  confine  our 
attention  to  that  part  of  the  motion  which,  escaping  trans- 
formation, continues  its  course,  then  it  is  a  corollary  from 
the  persistence  of  force  that  as  much  of  this  remaining  mo- 
tion as  is  taken  up  in  changing  the  positions  of  the  units, 
must  leave  these  by  so  much  less  able  to  obstruct  subsequent 
motion  in  the  same  direction. 

Thus  in  all  the  changes  heretofore  and  at  present  dis- 
played by  the  Solar  System;  in  all  those  that  have  gone  on 
and  are  still  going  on  in  the  Earth's  crust;  in  all  processes  of 
organic  development  and  function ;  in  all  mental  actions  and 
the  effects  they  work  on  the  body;  and  in  all  modifications 
of  structure  and  activity  in  societies ;  the  implied  movements 
are  of  necessity  determined  in  the  manner  above  set  forth. 
Wherever  we  see  motion,  its  direction  must  be  that  of  the 
greatest  force.  Wherever  we  see  the  greatest  force  to  be 
acting  in  a  given  direction,  in  that  direction  motion  must 
ensue.  These  are  not  truths  holding  only  of  one  class,  or  of 
some  classes,  of  phenomena;  but  they  are  among  those 
universal  truths  by  which  our  knowledge  of  phenomena  in 
general  is  unified. 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE    RHYTHM    OF    MOTION. 

§82.  When  the  pennant  of  a  vessel  lying  becalmed  first 
shows  the  coming  breeze,  it  does  so  by  gentle  undulations 
that  travel  from  its  fixed  to  its  free  end.  Presently  the  sails 
begin  to  flap;  and  their  blows  against  the  mast  increase  in 
rapidity  as  the  breeze  rises.  Even  when,  being  fully  bellied 
out,  they  are  in  great  part  steadied  by  the  strain  of  the  yards 
and  cordage,  their  free  edges  tremble  with  each  stronger 
gust.  And  should  there  come  a  gale,  the  jar  that  is  felt  on 
laying  hold  of  the  shrouds  shows  that  the  rigging  vibrates; 
while  the  rush  and  whistle  of  the  wind  prove  that  in  it,  also, 
rapid  undulations  are  generated.  Ashore  the  conflict  be- 
tween the  current  of  air  and  the  things  it  meets  results  in  a 
like  rhythmical  action.  The  leaves  all  shiver  in  the  blast; 
each  branch  oscillates ;  and  every  exposed  tree  sways  to  and 
fro.  The  blades  of  grass  and  dried  bents  in  the  meadows, 
and  still  better  the  stalks  in  the  neighbouring  corn-fields, 
exhibit  the  same  rising  and  falling  movement.  ISTor  do  the 
more  stable  objects  fail  to  do  the  like,  though  in  a  less  mani- 
fest fashion;  as  witness  the  shudder  that  may  be  felt 
throughout  a  house  during  the  paroxysms  of  a  violent 
storm.  Streams  of  water  produce  in  opposing  ob- 

jects the  same  general  effects  as  do  streams  of  air.  Sub- 
merged weeds  growing  in  the  middle  of  a  brook,  undulate 
from  end  to  end.  Branches  brought  down  by  the  last  flood, 
and  left  entangled  at  the  bottom  where  the  current  is  rapid, 

259 


260  THE   RHYTHM  OF   MOTION. 

are  thrown  into  a  state  of  up  and  down  movement  that  is 
slow  or  quick  in  proportion  as  they  are  large  or  small;  and 
where,  as  in  great  rivers  like  the  Mississippi,  whole  trees  are 
thus  held,  the  name  "  sawyers,"  by  which  they  are  locally 
known,  sufficiently  describes  the  rhythm  produced  in  them. 
jSote  again  the  effect  of  the  antagonism  between  the  current 
and  its  channel.  In  shallow  places,  where  the  action  of  the 
bottom  on  the  water  flowing  over  it  is  visible,  we  see  a  ripple 
produced — a  series  of  undulations.  And  if  we  study  the 
action  and  re-action  going  on  between  the  moving  fluid  and 
its  banks,  we  still  find  the  principle  illustrated,  though  in 
a  different  way.  For  in  every  rivulet,  as  in  the  mapped-out 
course  of  every  great  river,  the  bends  of  the  stream  from 
side  to  side  throughout  its  tortuous  course  constitute  a  lat- 
eral undulation — an  undulation  so  inevitable  that  even  an 
artificially  straightened  channel  is  eventually  changed  into 
a  serpentine  one.  Analogous  phenomena  may  be  observed 
where  the  water  is  stationary  and  the  solid  matter  moving. 
A  stick  drawn  laterally  through  the  water  with  much  force, 
proves  by  the  throb  which  it  communicates  to  the  hand  that 
it  is  in  a  state  of  vibration.  Even  where  the  moving  body  is 
massive,  it  only  requires  that  great  force  should  be  applied 
to  get  a  sensible  effect  of  like  kind :  instance  the  screw  of  a 
screw-steamer,  which  instead  of  a  smooth  rotation  falls  into 
a  rapid  rhythm  that  sends  a  tremor  through  the  whole  ves- 
sel. The  sound  which  results  when  a  bow  is  drawn 
over  a  violin-string,  shows  us  vibrations  produced  by  the 
movement  of  a  solid  over  a  solid.  In  lathes  and  planing 
machines,  the  attempt  to  take  off  a  thick  shaving  causes  a 
violent  jar  of  the  whole  apparatus,  and  the  production  of  a 
series  of  waves  on  the  iron  or  wood  that  is  cut.  Every  boy 
in  scraping  his  slate-pencil  finds  it  scarcely  possible  to  help 
making  a  ridged  surface.  If  you  roll  a  ball  along  the 
ground  or  over  the  ice,  there  is  always  more  or  less  up  and 
down  movement — a  movement  that  is  visible  while  the 
velocity  is  considerable,  but  becomes  too  small  and  rapid  to 


THE  RHYTHM  OF   MOTION.  261 

be  seen  by  the  unaided  eye  as  the  velocity  diminishes. 
However  smooth  the  rails,  and  however  perfectly  built  the 
carriages,  a  railway-train  inevitably  gets  into  oscillations, 
both  lateral  and  vertical.  Even  where  moving  matter  is 
suddenly  arrested  by  collision,  the  law  is  still  illustrated ;  for 
both  the  body  striking  and  the  body  struck  are  made  to  trem- 
ble; and  trembling  is  rhythmical  movement.  Little  as  we 
habitually  observe  it,  it  is  yet  certain  that  the  impulses  our 
actions  impress  from  moment  to  moment  on  surrounding 
objects,  are  propagated  through  them  in  vibrations.  It 
needs  but  to  look  through  a  telescope  of  high  power,  to  be 
convinced  that  each  pulsation  of  the  heart  gives  a  jar  to 
the  whole  room.  If  we  pass  to  motions  of  another 

order — those  namely  which  take  place  in  the  etherial  me- 
dium— we  still  find  the  same  thing.  Every  fresh  discovery 
confirms  the  hypothesis  that  light  consists  of  undulations. 
The  rays  of  heat,  too,  are  now  found  to  have  a  like  funda- 
mental nature;  their  undulations  differing  from  those  of 
light  only  in  their  comparative  lengths.  Nor  do  the  move- 
ments of  electricity  fail  to  furnish  us  with  an  illustration; 
though  one  of  a  different  order.  The  northern  aurora  may 
often  be  observed  to  pulsate  with  waves  of  greater  bright- 
ness ;  and  the  electric  discharge  through  a  vacuum  shows  us 
by  its  stratified  appearance  that  the  current  is  not  uni- 
form, but  comes  in  gushes  of  greater  and  lesser  inten- 
sity. Should  it  be  said  that  at  any  rate  there  are 
some  motions,  as  those  of  projectiles,  which  are  not  rhyth- 
mical, the  reply  is,  that  the  exception  is  apparent  only ;  and 
that  these  motions  would  be  rhythmical  if  they  were  not  in- 
terrupted. It  is  common  to  assert  that  the  trajectory  of  a 
cannon  ball  is  a  parabola;  and  it  is  true  that  (omitting 
atmospheric  resistance)  the  curve  described  differs  so  slight- 
ly from  a  parabola  that  it  may  practically  be  regarded  as 
one.  But,  strictly  speaking,  it  is  a  portion  of  an  extremely 
eccentric  ellipse,  having  the  Earth's  centre  of  gravity  for 
its  remoter  focus;  and  but  for  its  arrest  by  the  substance  of 


THE   RHYTHM  OF   MOTION. 

the  Earth,  the  cannon  ball  would  travel  round  that  focus 
and  return  to  the  point  whence  it  started;  again  to  repeat 
this  slow  rhythm.  Indeed,  while  seeming  at  first  sight  to 
do  the  reverse,  the  discharge  of  a  cannon  furnishes  one  of 
the  best  illustrations  of  the  principle  enunciated.  The  ex- 
plosion produces  violent  undulations  in  the  surrounding  air. 
The  whizz  of  the  shot,  as  it  flies  towards  its  mark,  is  due  to 
another  series  of  atmospheric  undulations.  And  the  move- 
ment to  and  from  the  Earth's  centre,  which  the  cannon 
ball  is  beginning  to  perform,  being  checked  by  solid  matter, 
is  transformed  into  a  rhythm  of  another  order;  namely, 
the  vibration  which  the  blow  sends  through  neighbouring 
bodies.* 

Rhythm  is  very  generally  not  simple  but  compound. 
There  are  usually  at  work  various  forces,  causing  undula- 
tions differing  in  rapidity ;  and  hence  it  continually  happens 
that  besides  the  primary  rhythms  there  are  secondary 
rhythms,  produced  by  the  periodic  coincidence  and  antago- 
nism of  the  primary  ones.  Double,  triple,  and  even  quad- 
ruple rhythms,  are  thus  generated.  One  of  the  simplest  in- 
stances is  afforded  by  what  in  acoustics  are  known  as 
"  beats:  "  recurring  intervals  of  sound  and  silence  which 
are  perceived  when  two  notes  of  nearly  the  same  pitch  are 
struck  together;  and  which  are  due  to  the  alternate  corre- 
spondence and  antagonism  of  the  atmospheric  waves.  In 
like  manner  the  various  phenomena  due  to  what  is  called 
interference  of  light,  severally  result  from  the  periodic 
agreement  and  disagreement  of  etherial  undulations — un- 
dulations which,  by  alternately  intensifying  and  neutraliz- 
ing each  other,  produce  intervals  of  increased  and  dimin- 
ished light.  On  the  sea-shore  may  be  noted  sundry  instances 
of  compound  rhythm.  We  have  that  of  the  tides,  in  which 
the  daily  rise  and  fall  undergoes  a  fortnightly  increase  and 

*  After  having  for  some  years  supposed  myself  alone  in  the  belief  that  all 
motion  is  rhythmical  I  discovered  that  my  friend  Professor  Tyndall  also  held 
this  doctrine. 


THE  RHYTHM  OF   MOTION.  263 

decrease,  due  to  the  alternate  coincidence  and  antagonism 
of  the  solar  and  lunar  attractions.  We  have  again  that 
which  is  perpetually  furnished  by  the  surface  of  the  sea: 
every  large  wave  bearing  smaller  ones  on  its  sides,  and  these 
still  smaller  ones;  with  the  result  that  each  flake  of  foam, 
along  with  the  portion  of  water  bearing  it,  undergoes  minor 
ascents  and  descents  of  several  orders  while  it  is  being  raised 
and  lowered  by  the  greater  billows.  A  quite  different  and 
very  interesting  example  of  compound  rhythm,  occurs  in 
the  little  rills  which,  at  low  tide,  run  over  the  sand  out  of  the 
shingle  banks  above.  Where  the  channel  of  one  of  these  is 
narrow,  and  the  stream  runs  strongly,  the  sand  at  the  bot- 
tom is  raised  into  a  series  of  ridges  corresponding  to  the  rip- 
ple of  the  water.  On  watching  for  a  short  time,  it  will  be 
seen  that  these  ridges  are  being  raised  higher  and  the  ripple 
growing  stronger;  until  at  length,  the  action  becoming  vio- 
lent, the  whole  series  of  ridges  is  suddenly  swept  away,  the 
stream  runs  smoothly,  and  the  process  commences  afresh. 
Instances  of  still  more  complex  rhythms  might  be  added; 
but  they  will  come  more  appropriately  in  connexion  with 
the  several  kinds  of  cosmical  changes,  hereafter  to  be  dealt 
with. 

From  the  ensemble  of  the  facts  as  above  set  forth,  it  will 
be  seen  that  rhythm  results  wherever  there  is  a  conflict  of 
forces  not  in  equilibrium.  If  the  antagonist  forces  at  any 
point  are  balanced,  there  is  rest;  and  in  the  absence  of  mo- 
tion there  can  of  course  be  no  rhythm.  But  if  instead  of  a 
balance  there  is  an  excess  of  force  in  one  direction — if,  as 
necessarily  follows,  motion  is  set  up  in  that  direction ;  then 
for  that  motion  to  continue  uniformly  in  that  direction,  it 
is  requisite  that  the  moving  matter  should,  notwithstanding 
its  unceasing  change  of  place,  present  unchanging  relations 
to  the  sources  of  force  by  which  its  motion  is  produced  and 
opposed.  This  however  is  impossible.  Every  further  trans- 
fer through  space  must  alter  the  ratio  between  the  forces 
concerned — must  increase  or  decrease  the  predominance  of 


264  THE  RHYTHM   OF   MOTION. 

one  force  over  the  other — must  prevent  uniformity  of  move- 
ment. And  if  the  movement  cannot  be  uniform,  then,  in 
the  absence  of  acceleration  or  retardation  continued  through 
infinite  time  and  space,  (results  which  cannot  be  conceived) 
the  only  alternative  is  rhythm. 

A  secondary  conclusion  must  not  be  omitted.  In  the  last 
chapter  we  saw  that  motion  is  never  absolutely  rectilinear; 
and  here  it  remains  to  be  added  that,  as  a  consequence, 
rhythm  is  necessarily  incomplete.  A  truly  rectilinear 
rhythm  can  arise  only  when  the  opposing  forces  are  in  ex- 
actly the  same  line ;  and  the  probabilities  against  this  are  in- 
finitely great.  To  generate  a  perfectly  circular  rhythm,  the 
two  forces  concerned  must  be  exactly  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  and  must  have  exactly  a  certain  ratio;  and  against 
this  the  probabilities  are  likewise  infinitely  great.  All  other 
proportions  and  directions  of  the  two  forces  will  produce  an 
ellipse  of  greater  or  less  eccentricity.  And  when,  as  indeed 
always  happens,  above  two  forces  are  engaged,  the  curve  de- 
scribed must  be  more  complex;  and  cannot  exactly  repeat 
itself.  So  that  in  fact  throughout  nature,  this  action  and  re- 
action of  forces  never  brings  about  a  complete  return  to  a 
previous  state.  Where  the  movement  is  much  involved, 
and  especially  where  it  is  that  of  some  aggregate  whose  units 
are  partially  independent,  anything  like  a  regular  curve  is 
no  longer  traceable ;  we  see  nothing  more  than  a  general  os- 
cillation. And  on  the  completion  of  any  periodic  move- 
ment, the  degree  in  which  the  state  arrived  at  differs  from 
the  state  departed  from,  is  usually  marked  in  proportion  as 
the  influences  at  work  are  numerous. 

§  83.  That  spiral  arrangement  so  general  among  the 
more  diffused  nebulae — an  arrangement  which  must  be  as- 
sumed by  matter  moving  towards  a  centre  of  gravity 
through  a  resisting  medium — shows  us  the  progressive  estab- 
lishment of  revolution,  and  therefore  of  rhythm,  in  those 
remote  spaces  which  the  nebulas  occupy.     Double  stars, 


THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION.  265 

moving  round  common  centres  of  gravity  in  periods  some  of 
which  are  now  ascertained,  exhibit  settled  rhythmical  ac- 
tions in  distant  parts  of  our  siderial  system.  And  another 
fact  which,  though  of  a  different  order,  has  a  like  general 
significance,  is  furnished  by  variable  stars — stars  which 
alternately  brighten  and  fade. 

The  periodicities  of  the  planets,  satellites,  and  comets, 
are  so  familiar  that  it  would  be  inexcusable  to  name  them, 
were  it  not  needful  here  to  point  out  that  they  are  so  many 
grand  illustrations  of  this  general  law  of  movement.  But  be- 
sides the  revolution  of  these  bodies  in  their  orbits  (all  more 
or  less  excentric)  and  their  rotations  on  their  axes,  the 
Solar  System  presents  us  with  various  rhythms  of  a  less 
manifest  and  more  complex  kind.  In  each  planet  and  satel- 
lite there  is  the  revolution  of  the  nodes — a  slow  change  in 
the  position  of  the  orbit-plane,  which  after  completing  itself 
commences  afresh.  There  is  the  gradual  alteration  in  the 
length  of  the  axis  major  of  the  orbit;  and  also  of  its  excen- 
tricity:  both  of  which  are  rhythmical  alike  in  the  sense 
that  they  alternate  between  maxima  and  minima,  and  in  the 
sense  that  the  progress  from  one  extreme  to  the  other  is  not 
uniform,  but  is  made  with  fluctuating  velocity.  Then,  too, 
there  is  the  revolution  of  the  line  of  apsides,  which  in  course 
of  time  moves  round  the  heavens — not  regularly,  but 
through  complex  oscillations.  And  further  we  have  varia- 
tions in  the  directions  of  the  planetary  axes — that  known 
as  nutation,  and  that  larger  gyration  which,  in  the 
case  of  the  Earth,  causes  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes. These  rhythms,  already  more  or  less  com- 
pound, are  compounded  with  each  other.  Such  an  instance 
as  the  secular  acceleration  and  retardation  of  the  moon, 
consequent  on  the  varying  excentricity  of  the  Earth's 
orbit,  is  one  of  the  simplest.  Another,  having  more  impor- 
tant consequences,  results  from  the  changing  direction  of 
the  axes  of  rotation  in  planets  whose  orbits  are  decidedly 
excentric.  Every  planet,  during  a  certain  long  period,  pre- 
19 


206  THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION. 

sents  more  of  its  northern  than  of  its  southern  hemisphere  to 
the  sun  at  the  time  of  its  nearest  approach  to  him ;  and  then 
again,  during  a  like  period,  presents  more  of  its  southern 
hemisphere  than  of  its  northern — a  recurring  coincidence 
which,  though  causing  in  some  planets  no  sensible  altera- 
tions of  climate,  involves  in  the  case  of  the  Earth  an  epoch 
of  21,000  years,  during  which  each  hemisphere  goes  through 
a  cycle  of  temperate  seasons,  and  seasons  that  are  extreme 
in  their  heat  and  cold.  Xor  is  this  all.  There  is  even  a 
variation  of  this  variation.  For  the  summers  and  winters  of 
the  whole  Earth  become  more  or  less  strongly  contrasted,  as 
the  excentricity  of  its  orbit  increases  and  decreases.  Hence 
during  increase  of  the  excentricity,  the  epochs  of  moderately 
contrasted  seasons  and  epochs  of  strongly  contrasted  sea- 
sons, through  which  alternately  each  hemisphere  passes, 
must  grow  more  and  more  different  in  the  degrees  of  their 
contrasts;  and  contrariwise  during  decrease  of  the  excen- 
tricity. So  that  in  the  quantity  of  light  and  heat  which  any 
portion  of  the  Earth  receives  from  the  sun,  there  goes  on  a 
quadruple  rhythm:  that  of  day  and  night;  that  of  summer 
and  winter;  that  due  to  the  changing  position  of  the  axis 
at  perihelion  and  aphelion,  taking  21,000  years  to  complete; 
and  that  involved  by  the  variation  of  the  orbit's  excen- 
tricity, gone  through  in  millions  of  years. 

§  84.  Those  terrestrial  processes  whose  dependence  on 
the  solar  heat  is  direct,  of  course  exhibit  a  rhythm  that  cor- 
responds to  the  periodically  changing  amount  of  heat  which 
each  part  of  the  Earth  receives.  The  simplest,  though  the 
least  obtrusive,  instance  is  supplied  by  the  magnetic  varia- 
tions. In  these  there  is  a  diurnal  increase  and  decrease,  an 
annual  increase  and  decrease,  and  a  decennial  increase  and 
decrease ;  the  latter  answering  to  a  period  during  which  the 
solar  spots  become  alternately  abundant  and  scarce :  besides 
which  known  variations  there  are  probably  others  corre- 
sponding with  the  astronomical  cycles  just  described.    More 


THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION.  267 

obvious  examples  are  furnished  by  the  movements  of  the 
ocean  and  the  atmosphere.  Marine  currents  from  the  equa- 
tor to  the  poles  above,  and  from  the  poles  to  the  equator  be- 
neath, show  us  an  unceasing  backward  and  forward  motion 
throughout  this  vast  mass  of  water — a  motion  varying  in 
amount  according  to  the  seasons,  and  compounded  with 
smaller  like  motions  of  local  origin.  The  similarly-caused 
general  currents  in  the  air,  have  similar  annual  variations 
similarly  modified.  Irregular  as  they  are  in  detail,  we  still 
see  in  the  monsoons  and  other  tropical  atmospheric  disturb- 
ances, or  even  in  our  own  equinoctial  gales  and  spring  east 
winds,   a  periodicity  sufficiently  decided.  Again, 

we  have  an  alternation  of  times  during  which  evaporation 
predominates  with  times  during  which  condensation  pre- 
dominates: shown  in  the  tropics  by  strongly  marked  rainy 
seasons  and  seasons  of  drought,  and  in  the  temperate  zones 
by  corresponding  changes  of  which  the  periodicity,  though 
less  definite,  is  still  traceable.  The  diffusion  and  precipita- 
tion of  water,  besides  the  slow  alternations  answering  to  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  year,  furnish  us  with  examples  of  rhythm 
of  a  more  rapid  kind.  During  wet  weather,  lasting,  let  us 
say,  over  some  weeks,  the  tendency  to  condense,  though 
greater  than  the  tendency  to  evaporate,  does  not  show  itself 
in  continuous  rain ;  but  the  period  is  made  up  of  rainy  days 
and  days  that  are  wholly  or  partially  fair.  ~Nor  is  it  in  this 
rude  alternation  only  that  the  law  is  manifested.  During 
any  day  throughout  this  wet  weather  a  minor  rhythm  is 
traceable;  and  especially  so  when  the  tendencies  to  evapo- 
rate and  to  condense  are  nearly  balanced.  Among  moun- 
tains this  minor  rhythm  and  its  causes  may  be  studied  to 
great  advantage.  Moist  winds,  which  do  not  precipitate 
their  contained  water  in  passing  over  the  comparatively 
warm  lowlands,  lose  so  much  heat  when  they  reach  the  cold 
mountain  peaks,  that  condensation  rapidly  takes  place. 
Water,  however,  in  passing  from  the  gaseous  to  the  fluid 
state,  gives  out  a  considerable  amount  of  heat;  and  hence 


268  THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION. 

the  resulting  clouds  are  warmer  than  the  air  that  precipi- 
tates them,  and  much  warmer  than  the  high  rocky  surfaces 
round  which  they  fold  themselves.  Hence  in  the  course  of 
the  storm,  these  high  rocky  surfaces  are  raised  in  tempera- 
ture, partly  by  radiation  from  the  enwrapping  cloud,  partly 
by  contact  of  the  falling  rain-drops.  Giving  off  more  heat 
than  before,  they  no  longer  lower  so  greatly  the  temperature 
of  the  air  passing  over  them;  and  so  cease  to  precipitate 
its  contained  water.  The  clouds  break;  the  sky  begins  to 
clear;  and  a  gleam  of  sunshine  promises  that  the  day  is 
going  to  be  fine.  But  the  small  supply  of  heat  which  the 
cold  mountain's  sides  have  received,  is  soon  lost:  especially 
when  the  dispersion  of  the  clouds  permits  free  radiation  into 
space.  Yery  soon,  therefore,  these  elevated  surfaces,  be- 
coming as  cold  as  at  first,  (or  perhaps  even  colder  in  virtue 
of  the  evaporation  set  up,)  begin  again  to  condense  the  va- 
pour in  the  air  above;  and  there  comes  another  storm,  fol- 
lowed by  the  same  effects  as  before.  In  lowland  regions  this 
action  and  reaction  is  usually  less  conspicuous,  because  the 
contrast  of  temperatures  is  less  marked.  Even  here,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  traced;  and  that  not  only  on  showery  days, 
but  on  days  of  continuous  rain;  for  in  these  we  do  not  see 
uniformity:  always  there  are  fits  of  harder  and  gentler  rain 
that  are  probably  caused  as  above  explained. 

Of  course  these  meteorologic  rhythms  involve  something 
corresponding  to  them  in  the  changes  wrought  by  wind  and 
water  on  the  Earth's  surface.  Variations  in  the  quantities 
of  sediment  brought  down  by  rivers  that  rise  and  fall  with 
the  seasons,  must  cause  variations  in  the  resulting  strata — 
alternations  of  colour  or  quality  in  the  successive  laminae. 
Beds  formed  from  the  detritus  of  shores  worn  down  and  car- 
ried away  by  the  waves,  must  similarly  show  periodic  differ- 
ences answering  to  the  periodic  winds  of  the  locality.  In  so 
far  as  frost  influences  the  rate  of  denudation,  its  recurrence 
is  a  factor  in  the  rhythm  of  sedimentary  deposits.  And  the 
geological  changes  produced  by  glaciers  and  icebergs  must 


THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION.  269 

similarly  have  their  alternating  periods  of  greater  and  less 
intensity. 

There  is  evidence  also  that  modifications  in  the  Earth's 
crust  due  to  igneous  action  have  a  certain  periodicity.  Vol- 
canic eruptions  are  not  continuous  but  intermittent,  and  as 
far  as  the  data  enable  us  to  judge,  have  a  certain  average 
rate  of  recurrence;  which  rate  of  recurrence  is  complicated 
by  rising  into  epochs  of  greater  activity  and  falling  into 
epochs  of  comparative  quiescence.  So  too  is  it  with  earth- 
quakes and  the  elevations  or  depressions  caused  by  them. 
At  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  the  alternation  of  strata 
gives  decisive  proof  of  successive  sinkings  of  the  surface, 
that  have  taken  place  at  tolerably  equal  intervals.  Every- 
where, in  the  extensive  groups  of  conformable  strata  that 
imply  small  subsidences  recurring  with  a  certain  average 
frequency,  we  see  a  rhythm  in  the  action  and  reaction  be- 
tween the  Earth's  crust  and  its  molten  contents — a  rhythm 
compounded  with  those  slower  ones  shown  in  the  termina- 
tion of  groups  of  strata,  and  the  commencement  of  other 
groups  not  conformable  to  them.  There  is  even 

reason  for  suspecting  a  geological  periodicity  that  is  im- 
mensely slower  and  far  wider  in  its  effects;  namely,  an  al- 
ternation of  those  vast  upheavals  and  submergencies  by 
which  contents  are  produced  where  there  were  oceans,  and 
oceans  where  there  were  continents.  For  supposing,  as  we 
may  fairly  do,  that  the  Earth's  crust  is  throughout  of  toler- 
ably equal  thickness,  it  is  manifest  that  such  portions  of  it  as 
become  most  depressed  below  the  average  level,  must  have 
their  inner  surfaces  most  exposed  to  the  currents  of  molten 
matter  circulating  within,  and  will  therefore  undergo  a 
larger  amount  of  what  may  be  called  igneous  denudation; 
while,  conversely,  the  withdrawal  of  the  inner  surfaces  from 
these  currents  where  the  Earth's  crust  is  most  elevated,  will 
cause  a  thickening  more  or  less  compensating  the  aqueous 
denudation  going  on  externally.  Hence  those  depressed 
areas  over  which  the  deepest  oceans  lie,  being  gradually 


270  THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION. 

thinned  beneath  and  not  covered  by  much  sedimentary 
deposit  above,  will  become  areas  of  least  resistance,  and  will 
then  begin  to  yield  to  the  upward  pressure  of  the  Earth's 
contents;  whence  will  result,  throughout  such  areas,  long 
continued  elevations,  ceasing  only  when  the  reverse  state 
of  things  has  been  brought  about.  Whether  this  specula- 
tion be  well  or  ill  founded,  does  not  however  affect  the  gen- 
eral conclusion.  Apart  from  it  we  have  sufficient  evidence 
that  geologic  processes  are  rhythmical. 

§  85.  Perhaps  nowhere  are  the  illustrations  of  rhythm 
so  numerous  and  so  manifest  as  among  the  phenomena  of 
life.  Plants  do  not,  indeed,  usually  show  us  any  decided 
periodicities,  save  those  determined  by  day  and  night  and  by 
the  seasons.  But  in  animals  we  have  a  great  variety  of 
movements  in  which  the  alternation  of  opposite  extremes 
goes  on  with  all  degrees  of  rapidity.  The  swallowing  of 
food  is  effected  by  a  wave  of  constriction  passing  along 
the  oesophagus;  its  digestion  is  accompanied  by  a  muscular 
action  of  the  stomach  that  is  also  undulatory;  and  the  peri- 
staltic motion  of  the  intestines  is  of  like  nature.  The  blood 
obtained  from  this  food  is  propelled  not  in  a  uniform  cur- 
rent but  in  pulses;  and  it  is  aerated  by  lungs  that  alternately 
contract  and  expand.  All  locomotion  results  from  oscilla- 
ting movements:  even  where  it  is  apparently  continuous, 
as  in  many  minute  forms,  the  microscope  proves  the  vibra- 
tion of  cilia  to  be  the  agency  by  which  the  creature  is  moved 
smoothly  forwards. 

Primary  rhythms  of  the  organic  actions  are  compounded 
with  secondary  ones  of  longer  duration.  These  various 
modes  of  activity  have  their  recurring  periods  of  increase 
and  decrease.  We  see  this  in  the  periodic  need  for  food, 
and  in  the  periodic  need  for  repose.  Each  meal  induces  a 
more  rapid  rhythmic  action  of  the  digestive  organs;  the 
pulsation  of  the  heart  is  accelerated;  and  the  inspirations 
become  more  frequent.    During  sleep,  on  the  contrary,  these 


THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION.  271 

several  movements  slacken.  So  that  in  the  course  of  the 
twenty-four  hours,  those  small  undulations  of  which  the 
different  kinds  of  organic  action  are  constituted,  undergo 
one  long  wave  of  increase  and  decrease,  complicated  with 
several  minor  waves.  Experiments  have  shown 

that  there  are  still  slower  rises  and  falls  of  functional  ac- 
tivity. Waste  and  assimilation  are  not  balanced  by  every 
meal,  but  one  or  other  maintains  for  some  time  a  slight  ex- 
cess ;  so  that  a  person  in  ordinary  health  is  found  to  undergo 
an  increase  and  decrease  of  weight  during  recurring  inter- 
vals of  tolerable  equality.  Besides  these  regular  periods 
there  are  still  longer  and  comparatively  irregular  ones; 
namely,  those  alternations  of  greater  and  less  vigour,  which 
even  healthy  people  experience.  So  inevitable  are  these 
oscillations  that  even  men  in  training  cannot  be  kept  sta- 
tionary at  their  highest  power,  but  when  they  have  reached 
it  begin  to  retrograde.  Further  evidence  of  rhythm 

in  the  vital  movements  is  furnished  by  invalids.  Sundry 
disorders  are  named  from  the  intermittent  character  of 
their  symptoms.  Even  where  the  periodicity  is  not  very 
marked,  it  is  mostly  traceable.  Patients  rarely  if  ever  get 
uniformly  worse ;  and  convalescents  have  usually  their  days 
of  partial  relapse  or  of  less  decided  advance. 

Aggregates  of  living  creatures  illustrate  the  general 
truth  in  other  ways.  If  each  species  of  organism  be  regarded 
as  a  whole,  it  displays  two  kinds  of  rhythm.  Life  as  it  ex- 
ists in  all  the  members  of  such  species,  is  an  extremely 
complex  kind  of  movement,  more  or  less  distinct  from  the 
kinds  of  movement  which  constitute  life  in  other  species. 
In  each  individual  of  the  species,  this  extremely  complex 
kind  of  movement  begins,  rises  to  its  climax,  declines,  and 
ceases  in  death.  And  every  successive  generation  thus  ex- 
hibits a  wave  of  that  peculiar  activity  characterizing  the 
species  as  a  whole.  The  other  form  of  rhythm  is  to 

be  traced  in  that  variation  of  number  which  each  tribe  of 
animals  and  plants  is  ever  undergoing.     Throughout  the 


272  THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION. 

unceasing  conflict  between  the  tendency  of  a  species  to  in- 
crease and  the  antagonistic  tendencies,  there  is  never  an 
equilibrium :  one  always  predominates.  In  the  case  even  of 
a  cultivated  plant  or  domesticated  animal,  where  artificial 
means  are  used  to  maintain  the  supply  at  a  uniform  level, 
we  still  see  that  oscillations  of  abundance  and  scarcity  can- 
not be  avoided.  And  among  the  creatures  uncared  for  by 
man,  such  oscillations  are  usually  more  marked.  After  a 
race  of  organisms  has  been  greatly  thinned  by  enemies 
or  lack  of  food,  its  surviving  members  become  more  favour- 
ably circumstanced  than  usual.  During  the  decline  in 
their  numbers  their  food  has  grown  relatively  more  abun- 
dant; while  their  enemies  have  diminished  from  want  of 
prey.  The  conditions  thus  remain  for  some  time  favourable 
to  their  increase;  and  they  multiply  rapidly.  By  and  by 
their  food  is  rendered  relatively  scarce,  at  the  same  time  that 
their  enemies  have  become  more  numerous;  and  the  destroy- 
ing influences  being  thus  in  excess,  their  number  begins  to 
diminish  again.  Yet  one  more  rhythm,  extremely 

slow  in  its  action,  may  be  traced  in  the  phenomena  of  Life, 
contemplated  under  their  most  general  aspect.  The  re- 
searches of  palaeontologists  show  that  there  have  been  going 
on,  during  the  vast  period  of  which  our  sedimentary  rocks 
bear  record,  successive  changes  of  organic  forms.  Species 
have  appeared,  become  abundant,  and  then  disappeared. 
Genera,  at  first  constituted  of  but  few  species,  have  for  a 
time  gone  on  growing  more  multiform;  and  then  have 
begun  to  decline  in  the  number  of  their  subdivisions:  leav- 
ing at  last  but  one  or  two  representatives,  or  none  at  all. 
During  longer  epochs  whole  orders  have  thus  arisen,  cul- 
minated, and  dwindled  away.  And  even  those  wider  divis- 
ions containing  many  orders  have  similarly  undergone  a 
gradual  rise,  a  high  tide,  and  a  long-continued  ebb.  The 
stalked  Crinoidea,  for  example,  which,  during  the  carbon- 
iferous epoch,  became  abundant,  have  almost  disappeared: 
only  a  single  species  being  extant.    Once  a  large  family  of 


THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION.  273 

molluscs,  the  Brachiopoda  have  now  become  rare.  The 
shelled  Cephalopods,  at  one  time  dominant  among  the  in- 
habitants of  the  ocean,  both  in  number  of  forms  and  of 
individuals,  are  in  our  day  nearly  extinct.  And  after  an 
"  age  of  rej)tiles,"  there  has  come  an  age  in  which  reptiles 
have  been  in  great  measure  supplanted  by  mammals. 
Whether  these  vast  rises  and  falls  of  different  kinds  of  life 
ever  undergo  anything  approaching  to  repetitions,  (which 
they  may  possibly  do  in  correspondence  with  those  vast 
cycles  of  elevation  and  subsidence  that  produce  continents 
and  oceans,)  it  is  sufficiently  clear  that  Life  on  the  Earth 
has  not  progressed  uniformly,  but  in  immense  undulations. 

§  86.  It  is  not  manifest  that  the  changes  of  conscious- 
ness are  in  any  sense  rhythmical.  Yet  here,  too,  analysis 
proves  both  that  the  mental  state  existing  at  any  moment  is 
not  uniform,  but  is  decomposable  into  rapid  oscillations; 
and  also  that  mental  states  pass  through  longer  intervals  of 
increasing  and  decreasing  intensity. 

Though  while  attending  to  any  single  sensation,  or  any 
group  of  related  sensations  constituting  the  consciousness  of 
an  object,  we  seem  to  remain  for  the  time  in  a  persistent  and 
homogeneous  condition  of  mind,  a  careful  self-examination 
shows  that  this  apparently  unbroken  mental  state  is  in  truth 
traversed  by  a  number  of  minor  states,  in  which  various 
other  sensations  and  perceptions  are  rapidly  presented  and 
disappear.  From  the  admitted  fact  that  thinking  consists 
in  the  establishment  of  relations,  it  is  a  necessary  corollary 
that  the  maintenance  of  consciousness  in  any  one  state  to  the 
entire  exclusion  of  other  states,  would  be  a  cessation  of 
thought,  that  is,  of  consciousness.  So  that  any  seemingly 
continuous  feeling,  say  of  pressure,  really  consists  of  por- 
tions of  that  feeling  perpetually  recurring  after  the  mo- 
mentary intrusion  of  other  feelings  and  ideas — quick 
thoughts  concerning  the  place  where  it  is  felt,  the  exter- 
nal object  producing  it,  its  consequences,  and  other  things 


274  THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION. 

suggested  by  association.  Thus  there  is  going  on  an  ex- 
tremely rapid  departure  from,  and  return  to,  that  particular 
mental  state  which  we  regard  as  persistent.  Besides  the 
evidence  of  rhythm  in  consciousness  which  direct  analysis 
thus  affords,  we  may  gather  further  evidence  from  the  cor- 
relation between  feeling  and  movement.  Sensations  and 
emotions  expend  themselves  in  producing  muscular  contrac- 
tions. If  a  sensation  or  emotion  were  strictly  continuous, 
there  would  be  a  continuous  discharge  along  those  motor 
nerves  acted  upon.  But  so  far  as  experiments  with  artificial 
stimuli  enable  us  to  judge,  a  continuous  discharge  along  the 
nerve  leading  to  a  muscle,  does  not  contract  it :  a  broken  dis- 
charge is  required — a  rapid  succession  of  shocks.  Hence 
muscular  contraction  pre-supposes  that  rhythmic  state  of 
consciousness  which  direct  observation  discloses.  A 

much  more  conspicuous  rhythm,  having  longer  waves,  is 
seen  during  the  outflow  of  emotion  into  dancing,  poetry, 
and  music.  The  current  of  mental  energy  that  shows 
itself  in  these  modes  of  bodily  action,  is  not  continuous,  but 
falls  into  a  succession  of  pulses.  The  measure  of  a  dance 
is  produced  by  the  alternation  of  strong  muscular  contrac- 
tions with  weaker  ones ;  and,  save  in  measures  of  the  simplest 
order  such  as  are  found  among  barbarians  and  children, 
this  alternation  is  compounded  with  longer  rises  and  falls 
in  the  degree  of  muscular  excitement.  Poetry  is  a  form  of 
speech  which  results  when  the  emphasis  is  regularly  recur- 
rent ;  that  is,  when  the  muscular  effort  of  pronunciation  has 
definite  periods  of  greater  and  less  intensity — periods  that 
are  complicated  with  others  of  like  nature  answering  to  the 
successive  verses.  Music,  in  still  more  various  ways,  exem- 
plifies the  law.  There  are  the  recurring  bars,  in  each  of 
which  there  is  a  primary  and  a  secondary  beat.  There  is  the 
alternate  increase  and  decrease  of  muscular  strain,  implied 
by  the  ascents  and  descents  to  the  higher  and  lower  notes — 
ascents  and  descents  composed  of  smaller  waves,  breaking 
the  rises  and  falls  of  the  larger  ones,  in  a  mode  peculiar  to 


THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION.  275 

each  melody.  And  then  we  have,  further,  the  alternation 
of  piano  and  forte  passages.  That  these  several  kinds  of 
rhythm,  characterizing  aesthetic  expression,  are  not,  in  the 
common  sense  of  the  word,  artificial,  but  are  intenser  forms 
of  an  undulatory  movement  habitually  generated  by  feeling 
in  its  bodily  discharge,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  are  all 
traceable  in  ordinary  speech ;  which  in  every  sentence  has  its 
primary  and  secondary  emphases,  and  its  cadence  contain- 
ing a  chief  rise  and  fall  complicated  with  subordinate  rises 
and  falls;  and  which  is  accompanied  by  a  more  or  less 
oscillatory  action  of  the  limbs  when  the  emotion  is 
great.  Still  longer  undulations  may  be  observed  by 

every  one,  in  himself  and  in  others,  on  occasions  of  extreme 
pleasure  or  extreme  pain.  Note,  in  the  first  place,  that  pain 
having  its  origin  in  bodily  disorder,  is  nearly  always  percep- 
tibly rhythmical.  During  hours  in  which  it  never  actually 
ceases,  it  has  its  variations  of  intensity — fits  or  paroxysms; 
and  then  after  these  hours  of  suffering  there  usually  come 
hours  of  comparative  ease.  Moral  pain  has  the  like  smaller 
and  larger  waves.  One  possessed  by  intense  grief  does  not 
utter  continuous  moans,  or  shed  tears  with  an  equable  rapid- 
ity; but  these  signs  of  passion  come  in  recurring  bursts. 
Then  after  a  time  during  which  such  stronger  and  weaker 
waves  of  emotion  alternate,  there  comes  a  calm — a  time  of 
comparative  deadness;  to  which  again  succeeds  another  in- 
terval, when  dull  sorrow  rises  afresh  into  acute  anguish, 
with  its  series  of  paroxysms.  Similarly  in  great  delight,  es- 
pecially as  manifested  by  children  who  have  its  display  less 
under  control,  there  are  visible  variations  in  the  intensity  of 
feeling  shown — fits  of  laughter  and  dancing  about,  sepa- 
rated by  pauses  in  which  smiles,  and  other  slight  manifesta- 
tions of  pleasure,  suffice  to  discharge  the  lessened  excite- 
ment. Nor  are  there  wanting  evidences  of  mental 
undulations  greater  in  length  than  any  of  these — undula- 
tions which  take  weeks,  or  months,  or  years,  to  complete 
themselves.     We  continually  hear  of  moods  which  recur 


276  THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION. 

at  intervals.  Very  many  persons  have  their  epochs  of 
vivacity  and  depression.  There  are  periods  of  industry  fol- 
lowing periods  of  idleness;  and  times  at  which  particular 
subjects  or  tastes  are  cultivated  with  zeal,  alternating  with 
times  at  which  they  are  neglected.  Respecting  which  slow 
oscillations,  the  only  qualification  to  be  made  is,  that  being 
affected  by  numerous  influences,  they  are  comparatively 
irregular. 

§  87.  In  nomadic  societies  the  changes  of  place,  deter- 
mined as  they  usually  are  by  exhaustion  or  failure  of  the 
supply  of  food,  are  periodic;  and  in  many  cases  show  a 
recurrence  answering  to  the  seasons.  Each  tribe  that  has 
become  in  some  degree  fixed  in  its  locality,  goes  on  increas- 
ing, till  under  the  pressures  of  unsatisfied  desires,  there  re- 
sults migration  of  some  part  of  it  to  a  new  region — a  process 
repeated  at  intervals.  From  such  excesses  of  population, 
and  such  successive  waves  of  migration,  come  conflicts  with 
other  tribes ;  which  are  also  increasing  and  tending  to  diffuse 
themselves.  This  antagonism,  like  all  others,  results  not  in 
an  uniform  motion,  but  in  an  intermittent  one.  TTar,  ex- 
haustion, recoil — peace,  prosperity,  and  renewed  aggres- 
sion : — see  here  the  alternation  more  or  less  discernible  in 
the  military  activities  of  both  savage  and  civilized  nations. 
And  irregular  as  is  this  rhythm,  it  is  not  more  so  than  the 
different  sizes  of  the  societies,  and  the  extremely  involved 
causes  of  variation  in  their  strengths,  would  lead  us  to  an- 
ticipate. 

Passing  from  external  to  internal  changes,  we  meet  with 
this  backward  and  forward  movement  under  many  forms. 
In  the  currents  of  commerce  it  is  especially  conspicuous. 
Exchange  during  early  times  is  almost  wholly  carried  on  at 
fairs,  held  at  long  intervals  in  the  chief  centres  of  popula- 
tion. The  flux  and  reflux  of  people  and  commodities  which 
each  of  these  exhibits,  becomes  more  frequent  as  national 
development  leads  to  greater  social  activity.     The  more 


THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION.  277 

rapid  rhythm  of  weekly  markets  begins  to  supersede  the 
slow  rhythm  of  fairs.  And  eventually  the  process  of  ex- 
change becomes  at  certain  places  so  active,  as  to  bring  about 
daily  meetings  of  buyers  and  sellers — a  daily  wave  of 
accumulation  and  distribution  of  cotton,  or  corn,  or 
capital.  If  from  exchange  we  turn  to  production  and 

consumption,  we  see  undulations,  much  longer  indeed  in 
their  periods,  but  almost  equally  obvious.  Supply  and  de- 
mand are  never  completely  adapted  to  each  other;  but  each 
of  them  from  time  to  time  in  excess,  leads  presently  to  an 
excess  of  the  other.  Farmers  who  have  one  season  produced 
wheat  very  abundantly,  are  disgusted  with  the  consequent 
low  price;  and  next  season,  sowing  a  much  smaller  quan- 
tity, bring  to  market  a  deficient  crop;  whence  follows  a 
converse  effect.  Consumption  undergoes  parallel  undula- 
tions that  need  not  be  specified.  The  balancing  of  supplies 
between  different  districts,  too,  entails  analogous  oscilla- 
tions. A  place  at  which  some  necessary  of  life  is  scarce, 
becomes  a  place  to  which  currents  of  it  are  set  up  from 
other  places  where  it  is  relatively  abundant;  and  these 
currents  from  all  sides  lead  to  a  wave  of  accumulation  where 
they  meet — a  glut:  whence  follows  a  recoil — a  partial  re- 
turn of  the  currents.  But  the  undulatory  character 
of  these  actions  is  perhaps  best  seen  in  the  rises  and  falls  of 
prices.  These,  given  in  numerical  measures  which  may  be 
tabulated  and  reduced  to  diagrams,  show  us  in  the  clearest 
manner  how  commercial  movements  are  compounded  of 
oscillations  of  various  magnitudes.  The  price  of  consols  or 
the  price  of  wheat,  as  thus  represented,  is  seen  to  undergo 
vast  ascents  and  descents  whose  highest  and  lowest  points 
are  reached  only  in  the  course  of  years.  These  largest  waves 
of  variation  are  broken  by  others  extending  over  periods  of 
perhaps  many  months.  On  these  again  come  others  having 
a  week  or  two's  duration.  And  were  the  changes  marked  in 
greater  detail,  we  should  have  the  smaller  undulations  that 
take  place  each  day,  and  the  still  smaller  ones  which  brokers 


278  THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION. 

telegraph  from  hour  to  hour.  The  whole  outline  would 
show  a  complication  like  that  of  a  vast  ocean-swell,  on  whose 
surface  there  rise  large  billows,  which  themselves  bear 
waves  of  moderate  size,  covered  by  wavelets,  that  are  rough- 
ened by  a  minute  ripple.  Similar  diagramatic  representa- 
tions of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths,  of  disease,  of  crime, 
of  pauperism,  exhibit  involved  conflicts  of  rhythmical  mo- 
tions throughout  society  under  these  several  aspects. 

There  are  like  characteristics  in  social  changes  of  a  more 
complex  kind.  Both  in  England  and  among  continental 
nations,  the  action  and  reaction  of  political  progress  have 
come  to  be  generally  recognized.  Religion,  besides  its  occa- 
sional revivals  of  smaller  magnitude,  has  its  long  periods  of 
exaltation  and  depression — generations  of  belief  and  self- 
mortification,  following  generations  of  indifference  and  lax- 
ity. There  are  poetical  epochs,  and  epochs  in  which  the 
sense  of  the  beautiful  seems  almost  dormant.  Philosophy, 
after  having  been  awhile  predominant,  lapses  for  a  long 
season  into  neglect;  and  then  again  slowly  revives.  Each 
science  has  its  eras  of  deductive  reasoning,  and  its  eras  when 
attention  is  chiefly  directed  to  collecting  and  colligating 
facts.  And  how  in  such  minor  but  more  obtrusive  phenom- 
ena as  those  of  fashion,  there  are  ever  going  on  oscillations 
from  one  extreme  to  the  other,  is  a  trite  observation. 

As  may  be  foreseen,  social  rhythms  well  illustrate  the 
irregularity  that  results  from  combination  of  many  causes. 
Where  the  variations  are  those  of  one  simple  element  in  na- 
tional life,  as  the  supply  of  a  particular  commodity,  we  do 
indeed  witness  a  return,  after  many  involved  movements,  to 
a  previous  condition — the  price  may  become  what  it  was  be- 
fore: implying  a  like  relative  abundance.  But  where  the 
action  is  one  into  which  many  factors  enter,  there  is  never 
a  recurrence  of  exactly  the  same  state.  A  political  reaction 
never  brings  round  just  the  old  form  of  things.  The 
rationalism  of  the  present  day  differs  widely  from  the 
rationalism  of  the  last  century.     And  though  fashion  from 


THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION.  279 

time  to  time  revives  extinct  types  of  dress,  these  always 
re-appear  with  decided  modifications. 

§  88.  The  universality  of  this  principle  suggests  a  ques- 
tion like  that  raised  in  foregoing  cases.  Rhythm  being 
manifested  in  all  forms  of  movement,  we  have  reason  to  sus- 
pect that  it  is  determined  by  some  primordial  condition  to 
action  in  general.  The  tacit  implication  is  that  it  is  de- 
ducible  from  the  persistence  of  force.  This  we  shall  find  to 
be  the  fact. 

When  the  prong  of  a  tuning-fork  is  pulled  on  one  side 
by  the  finger,  a  certain  extra  tension  is  produced  among  its 
cohering  particles;  which  resist  any  force  that  draws  them 
out  of  their  state  of  equilibrium.  As  much  force  as  the  fin- 
ger exerts  in  pulling  the  prong  aside,  so  much  opposing  force 
is  brought  into  play  among  the  cohering  particles.  Hence, 
when  the  prong  is  liberated,  it  is  urged  back  by  a  force  equal 
■to  that  used  in  deflecting  it.  When,  therefore,  the  prong 
reaches  its  original  position,  the  force  impressed  on  it  during 
its  recoil,  has  generated  in  it  a  corresponding  amount  of  mo- 
mentum— an  amount  of  momentum  nearly  equivalent,  that 
is,  to  the  force  originally  impressed  (nearly,  we  must  say, 
because  a  certain  portion  has  gone  in  communicating  mo- 
tion to  the  air,  and  a  certain  other  portion  has  been  trans- 
formed into  heat).  This  momentum  carries  the  prong  be- 
yond the  position  of  rest,  nearly  as  far  as  it  was  originally 
drawn  in  the  reverse  direction;  until  at  length,  being  grad- 
ually used  up  in  producing  an  opposing  tension  among  the 
particles,  it  is  all  lost.  The  opposing  tension  into  which  the 
expended  momentum  has  been  transformed,  then  generates 
a  second  recoil;  and  so  on  continually — the  vibration  even- 
tually ceasing  only  because  at  each  movement  a  certain 
amount  of  force  goes  in  creating  atmospheric  and  etherial 
undulations.  Now  it  needs  but  to  contemplate  this  repeated 
action  and  reaction,  to  see  that  it  is,  like  every  action  and  re- 
action, a  consequence  of  the  persistence  of  force.    The  force 


280  THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION. 

exerted  by  the  finger  in  bending  the  prong  cannot  disappear. 
Under  what  form  then  does  it  exist?  It  exists  under  the 
form  of  that  cohesive  tension  which  it  has  generated  among 
the  particles.  This  cohesive  tension  cannot  cease  without  an 
equivalent  result.  What  is  its  equivalent  result?  The 
momentum  generated  in  the  prong  while  being  carried  back 
to  its  position  of  rest.  This  momentum  too — what  becomes 
of  it?  It  must  either  continue  as  momentum,  or  produce 
some  correlative  force  of  equal  amount.  It  cannot  continue 
as  momentum,  since  change  of  place  is  resisted  by  the  cohe- 
sion of  the  parts;  and  thus  it  gradually  disappears  by  being 
transformed  into  tension  among  these  parts.  This  is  re- 
transformed  into  the  equivalent  momentum ;  and  so  on  con- 
tinuously. If  instead  of  motion  that  is  directly 
antagonized  by  the  cohesion  of  matter,  we  consider  motion 
through  space,  the  same  truth  presents  itself  under  another 
form.  Though  here  no  opposing  force  seems  at  work,  and 
therefore  no  cause  of  rhythm  is  apparent,  yet  its  own  accu- 
mulated momentum  must  eventually  carry  the  moving  body 
beyond  the  body  attracting  it ;  and  so  must  become  a  force  at 
variance  with  that  which  generated  it.  From  this  conflict, 
rhythm  necessarily  results  as  in  the  foregoing  case.  The 
force  embodied  as  momentum  in  a  given  direction,  cannot  be 
destroyed;  and  if  it  eventually  disappears,  it  re-appears  in 
the  reaction  on  the  retarding  body;  which  begins  afresh  to 
draw  the  now  arrested  mass  back  from  its  aphelion.  The 
only  conditions  under  which  there  could  be  absence  of 
rhythm — the  only  conditions,  that  is,  under  which  there 
could  be  a  continuous  motion  through  space  in  the  same 
straight  line  for  ever,  would  be  the  existence  of  an  infinity 
void  of  everything  but  the  moving  body.  And  neither  of 
these  conditions  can  be  represented  in  thought.  Infinity  is 
inconceivable;  and  so  also  is  a  motion  which  never  had  a 
commencement  in  some  pre-existing  source  of  power. 

Thus,  then,  rhythm  is  a  necessary  characteristic  of  all 
motion.     Given  the  co-existence  everywhere  of  antagonist 


THE  RHYTHM  OF  MOTION.  281 

forces — a  postulate  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  necessitated 
by  the  form  of  our  experience — and  rhythm  is  an  inevitable 
corollary  from  the  persistence  of  force. 

[Note. — In  the  Edinburgh  Review  for  January,  1884,  there  was  an  antag- 
onistic criticism  of  this  work.  The  writer  of  the  criticism,  Lord  Grimthorpe, 
made  much  of  the  exception  furnished  by  non-periodic  comets  to  the  law 
above  set  forth.  I  was  about  to  admit  this  exception  when,  on  looking  into 
the  matter,  I  found  no  need  for  doing  so.  Though  five  or  six  cometary  orbits 
are  said  to  be  hyperbolic,  yet,  as  I  learn  from  one  who  has  paid  special  atten- 
tion to  comets  (having  tabulated  the  directions  of  their  aphelia),  4<  no  such 
orbit  has,  I  believe,  been  computed  for  a  well-observed  comet."  Hence  the 
probability  that  all  the  orbits  are  ellipses  is  overwhelming.  Ellipses  and 
hyperbolas  have  countless  varieties  of  forms,  but  there  is  only  one  form  of 
parabola ;  or,  to  speak  literally,  all  parabolas  are  similar,  while  there  are  in- 
finitely numerous  dissimilar  ellipses  and  dissimilar  hyperbolas.  Consequently, 
anything  coming  to  the  Sun  from  a  great  distance  must  have  one  exact  amount 
of  proper  motion  to  produce  a  parabola  :  all  other  amounts  would  give  hyper- 
bolas or  ellipses.  And  if  there  are  no  hyperbolic  orbits,  then  it  is  infinity  to 
one  that  all  the  orbits  are  elliptical.] 


20 


CHAPTER  XL 

RECAPITULATION,    CRITICISM,    AND    RECOMMENCEMENT. 

§  89.  Let  us  pause  awhile  to  consider  how  far  the  con- 
tents of  the  foregoing  chapters  go  towards  forming  a  body 
of  knowledge  such  as  was  defined  at  the  outset  as  constitut- 
ing Philosophy. 

In  respect  of  its  generality,  the  proposition  enunciated 
and  exemplified  in  each  chapter,  is  of  the  required  kind — is 
a  proposition  transcending  those  class-limits  which  Science, 
as  currently  understood,  recognizes.  "  The  Indestructibil- 
ity of  Matter  "  is  a  truth  not  belonging  to  mechanics  more 
than  to  chemistry,  a  truth  assumed  alike  by  molecular  phys- 
ics and  the  physics  that  deals  with  sensible  masses,  a  truth 
which  the  astronomer  and  the  biologist  equally  take  for 
granted.  Kot  merely  do  those  divisions  of  Science  which 
deal  with  the  movements  of  celestial  and  terrestrial  bodies 
postulate  "  The  Continuity  of  Motion,"  but  it  is  no  less  pos- 
tulated in  the  physicist's  investigations  into  the  phenomena 
of  light  and  heat,  and  is  tacitly,  if  not  avowedly,  implied  in 
the  generalizations  of  the  higher  sciences.  So,  too,  "  The 
Persistence  of  Force,"  involved  in  each  of  the  preceding 
propositions,  is  co-extensive  with  them,  as  is  also  its  corol- 
lary, "  The  Persistence  of  Relations  among  Forces.'7  These 
are  not  truths  of  a  high  generality,  but  they  are  universal 
truths.  Passing  to  the   deductions  drawn  from 

them,  we  see  the  same  thing.  That  force  is  transformable, 
and  that  between   its   correlates  there   exist  quantitative 

282 


RECAPITULATION,  CRITICISM,  AND  RECOMMENCEMENT.  283 

equivalences,  are  ultimate  facts  not  to  be  classed  with  those 
of  mechanics,  or  thermology,  or  electricity,  or  magnetism; 
but  they  are  illustrated  throughout  phenomena  of  every 
order,  up  to  those  of  mind  and  society.  Similarly,  the  law 
that  motion  follows  the  line  of  least  resistance  or  the  line  of 
greatest  traction  or  the  resultant  of  the  two,  we  found  to  be 
an  all-pervading  law;  conformed  to  alike  by  each  planet  in 
its  orbit,  and  by  the  moving  matters,  aerial,  liquid,  and  solid, 
on  its  surface — conformed  to  no  less  by  every  organic 
movement  and  process  than  by  every  inorganic  movement 
and  process.  And  so  likewise,  in  the  chapter  just  closed,  it 
has  been  shown  that  rhythm  is  exhibited  universally,  from 
the  slow  gyrations  of  double  stars  down  to  the  inconceivably 
rapid  oscillations  of  molecules — from  such  terrestrial 
changes  as  those  of  recurrent  glacial  epochs  and  gradually 
alternating  elevations  and  subsidences,  down  to  those  of  the 
winds  and  tides  and  waves ;  and  is  no  less  conspicuous  in  the 
functions  of  living  organisms,  from  the  pulsations  of  the 
heart  up  to  the  paroxysms  of  the  emotions. 

Thus  these  truths  have  the  character  which  constitutes 
them  parts  of  Philosophy,  properly  so  called.  They  are 
truths  which  unify  concrete  phenomena  belonging  to  all 
divisions  of  Nature;  and  so  must  be  components  of  that 
complete,  coherent  conception  of  things  which  Philosophy 
seeks. 

§  90.  But  now  what  parts  do  these  truths  play  in  form- 
ing such  a  conception  ?  Does  any  one  of  them  singly  convey 
an  idea  of  the  Cosmos:  meaning  by  this  word  the  totality 
of  the  manifestations  of  the  Unknowable?  Do  all  of  them 
taken  together  yield  us  an  adequate  idea  of  this  kind?  Do 
they  even  when  thought  of  in  combination  compose  any- 
thing like  such  an  idea?  To  each  of  these  questions  the 
answer  must  be — No. 

Neither  these  truths  nor  any  other  such  truths,  separate- 
ly or  jointly,  constitute  that  integrated  knowledge  in  which 


2S4  RECAPITULATION,  CRITICISM,  AND  RECOMMENCEMENT. 

only  Philosophy  finds  its  goal.  It  has  been  supposed  by 
one  thinker  that  when  Science  has  succeeded  in  reducing  all 
more  complex  laws  to  some  most  simple  law,  as  of  molecular 
action,  knowledge  will  have  reached  its  limit.  Another 
authority  has  tacitly  asserted  that  all  minor  facts  are  so 
merged  in  the  major  fact  that  the  force  everywhere  in  action 
is  nowhere  lost,  that  to  express  this  is  to  express  "  the  consti- 
tution of  the  universe."  But  either  conclusion  implies  a 
misapprehension  of  the  problem. 

For  these  are  all  analytical  truths,  and  no  analytical 
truth — no  number  of  analytical  truths,  will  make  up  that 
synthesis  of  thought  which  alone  can  be  an  interpretation  of 
the  synthesis  of  things.  The  decomposition  of  phenomena 
into  their  elements,  is  but  a  preparation  for  understanding 
phenomena  in  their  state  of  composition,  as  actually  mani- 
fested. To  have  ascertained  the  laws  of  the  factors  is  not 
at  all  to  have  ascertained  the  laws  of  their  co-operation. 
The  question  is,  not  how  any  factor,  Matter  or  Motion  or 
Force,  behaves  by  itself,  or  under  some  imagined  simple 
conditions ;  nor  is  it  even  how  one  factor  behaves  under  the 
complicated  conditions  of  actual  existence.  The  thing  to 
be  expressed  is  the  joint  product  of  the  factors  under  all  its 
various  aspects.  Only  when  we  can  formulate  the  total 
process,  have  we  gained  that  knowledge  of  it  which  Philoso- 
phy aspires  to.  A  clear  comprehension  of  this  matter  is  im- 
portant enough  to  justify  some  further  exposition. 

§  91.  Suppose  a  chemist,  a  geologist,  and  a  biologist, 
have  given  the  deepest  explanations  furnished  by  their 
respective  sciences,  of  the  processes  going  on  in  a  burning 
candle,  in  a  region  changed  by  earthquake,  and  in  a  grow- 
ing plant.  To  the  assertion  that  their  explanations  are  not 
the  deepest  possible,  they  will  probably  rejoin — "  What 
would  you  have?  What  remains  to  be  said  of  combustion 
when  light  and  heat  and  the  dissipation  of  substance  have 
all  been  traced  down  to  the  liberation  of  molecular  motion 


RECAPITULATION,  CRITICISM,  AND  RECOMMENCEMENT.  285 

as  tlieir  common  cause?  When  all  the  actions  accompany- 
ing an  earthquake  are  explained  as  consequent  upon  the 
slow  loss  of  the  Earth's  internal  heat,  how  is  it  possible  to 
go  lower?  When  the  influence  of  light  on  the  oscillations 
of  molecules  has  been  proved  to  account  for  vegetal  growth, 
what  is  the  imaginable  further  rationale?  You  ask  for  a 
synthesis.  You  say  that  knowledge  does  not  end  in  the 
resolution  of  phenomena  into  the  actions  of  certain  factors, 
each  conforming  to  ascertained  laws;  but  that  the  laws  of 
the  factors  having  been  ascertained,  there  comes  the  chief 
problem — to  show  how  from  their  joint  action  result  the 
phenomena  in  all  tlieir  complexity.  Well,  do  not  the  above 
interpretations  satisfy  this  requirement?  Do  we  not,  start- 
ing with  the  molecular  motions  of  the  elements  concerned 
in  combustion,  build  up  synthetically  an  explanation  of  the 
light,  and  the  heat,  and  the  produced  gases,  and  the  move- 
ments of  the  produced  gases?  Do  we  not,  setting  out 
from  the  still-continued  radiation  of  its  heat,  construct  by 
synthesis  a  clear  conception  of  the  Earth's  nucleus  as  con- 
tracting, its  crust  as  collapsing,  as  becoming  shaken  and 
fissured  and  contorted  and  burst  through  by  lava?  And 
is  it  not  the  same  with  the  chemical  changes  and  accumula- 
tion of  matter  in  the  growing  plant?  " 

To  all  which  the  reply  is,  that  the  ultimate  interpretation 
to  be  reached  by  Philosophy,  is  a  universal  synthesis  com- 
prehending and  consolidating  such  special  syntheses.  The 
synthetic  explanations  which  Science  gives,  even  up  to 
the  most  general,  are  more  or  less  independent  of  one  an- 
other. Though  they  may  have  like  elements  in  them,  they 
are  not  united  by  the  likeness  of  their  essential  structures. 
Is  it  to  be  supposed  that  in  the  burning  candle,  in  the 
quaking  Earth,  and  in  the  organism  that  is  increasing, 
the  processes  as  wholes  are  unrelated  to  one  another?  If  it 
is  admitted  that  each  of  the  factors  concerned  always  oper- 
ates in  conformity  to  a  law,  is  it  to  be  concluded  that  their 
co-operation  conforms  to  no  law?     These  various  changes, 


286  RECAPITULATION,  CRITICISM,  AND  RECOMMENCEMENT. 

artificial  and  natural,  organic  and  inorganic,  which  for  con- 
venience sake  we  distinguish,  are  not  from  the  highest 
point  of  view  to  be  distinguished;  for  they  are  all  changes 
going  on  in  the  same  Cosmos,  and  forming  parts  of  one 
vast  transformation.  The  play  of  forces  is  essentially  the 
same  in  principle  throughout  the  whole  region  explored  by 
our  intelligence;  and  though,  varying  infinitely  in  their 
proportions  and  combinations,  they  work  out  results  every- 
where more  or  less  different,  and  often  seeming  to  have  no 
kinship,  yet  there  cannot  but  be  among  these  results  a 
fundamental  community.  The  question  to  be  answered  is 
— what  is  the  common  element  in  the  histories  of  all  con- 
crete processes? 

§  92.  To  resume,  then,  we  have  now  to  seek  a  law  of 
composition  of  phenomena,  co-extensive  with  those  laws  of 
their  components  set  forth  in  the  foregoing  chapters.  Hav- 
ing seen  that  matter  is  indestructible,  motion  continuous, 
and  force  persistent — having  seen  that  forces  are  every- 
where undergoing  transformation,  and  that  motion,  always 
following  the  line  of  least  resistance,  is  invariably  rhythmic, 
it  remains  to  discover  the  similarly-invariable  formula  ex- 
pressing the  combined  consequences  of  the  actions  thus  sepa- 
rately formulated. 

What  must  be  the  general  character  of  such  a  formula? 
It  must  be  one  that  specifies  the  course  of  the  changes 
undergone  by  both  the  matter  and  the  motion.  Every 
transformation  implies  re-arrangement  of  component  parts ; 
and  a  definition  of  it,  while  saying  what  has  happened  to  the 
sensible  or  insensible  portions  of  substance  concerned,  must 
also  say  what  has  happened  to  the  movements,  sensible  or 
insensible,  which  the  re-arrangement  of  parts  implies. 
Further,  unless  the  transformation  always  goes  on  in  the 
same  way  and  at  the  same  rate,  the  formula  must  specify  the 
conditions  under  which  it  commences,  ceases,  and  is  re- 
versed. 


RECAPITULATION,  CRITICISM,  AND  RECOMMENCEMENT.  287 

The  law  we  seek,  therefore,  must  be  the  law  of  the  con- 
tinuous redistribution  of  matter  and  motion.  Absolute  rest 
and  permanence  do  not  exist.  Every  object,  no  less  than 
the  aggregate  of  all  objects,  undergoes  from  instant  to 
instant  some  alteration  of  state.  Gradually  or  quickly  it  is 
receiving  motion  or  losing  motion,  while  some  or  all  of  its 
parts  are  simultaneously  changing  their  relations  to  one 
another.  And  the  question  to  be  answered  is — What 
dynamic  principle,  true  of  the  metamorphosis  as  a  whole 
and  in  its  details,  expresses  these  ever-changing  relations? 

This  chapter  has  served  its  purpose  if  it  has  indicated  the 
nature  of  the  ultimate  problem.  The  discussion  on  which 
we  are  now  to  enter,  may  fitly  open  with  a  new  presentation 
of  this  problem,  carrying  with  it  the  clear  implication  that  a 
Philosophy,  rightly  so-called,  can  come  into  existence  only 
by  solving  the  problem. 


CHAPTEE  XII. 

EVOLUTION    AND    DISSOLUTION. 

§  93.  An  entire  history  of  anything  must  include  its  ap- 
pearance out  of  the  imperceptible  and  its  disappearance  into 
the  imperceptible.  Be  it  a  single  object  or  the  whole  uni- 
verse, any  account  which  begins  with  it  in  a  concrete  form, 
or  leaves  off  with  it  in  a  concrete  form,  is  incomplete ;  since 
there  remains  an  era  of  its  knowable  existence  undescribed 
and  unexplained.  Admitting,  or  rather  asserting,  that 
knowledge  is  limited  to  the  phenomenal,  we  have,  by  impli- 
cation, asserted  that  the  sphere  of  knowledge  is  co-extensive 
with  the  phenomenal — co-extensive  with  all  modes  of  the 
Unknowable  that  can  affect  consciousness.  Hence,  wher- 
ever we  now  find  Being  so  conditioned  as  to  act  on  our 
senses,  there  arise  the  questions — how  came  it  thus  condi- 
tioned? and  how  will  it  cease  to  be  thus  conditioned?  Un- 
less on  the  assumption  that  it  acquired  a  sensible  form  at  the 
moment  of  perception,  and  lost  its  sensible  form  the  mo- 
ment after  perception,  it  must  have  had  an  antecedent  exist- 
ence under  this  sensible  form,  and  will  have  a  subsequent 
existence  under  this  sensible  form.  These  preceding  and 
succeeding  existences  under  sensible  forms,  are  possible  sub- 
jects of  knowledge;  and  knowledge  has  obviously  not 
reached  its  limits  until  it  has  united  the  past,  present,  and 
future  histories  into  a  whole. 

The  sayings  and  doings  of  daily  life  imply  more  or  less 
such  knowledge,  actual  or  potential,  of  states  which  havq 

288 


EVOLUTION  AND  DISSOLUTION.  289 

gone  before  and  of  states  which  will  come  after;  and,  in- 
deed, the  greater  part  of  our  knowledge  involves  these 
elements.  Knowing  any  man  personally,  implies  having  be- 
fore seen  him  under  a  shape  much  the  same  as  his  present 
shape;  and  knowing  him  simply  as  a  man,  implies  the  in- 
ferred antecedent  states  of  infancy,  childhood,  and  youth. 
Though  the  man's  future  is  not  known  specifically,  it  is 
known  generally:  the  facts  that  he  will  die  and  that  his 
body  will  decay,  are  facts  which  complete  in  outline  the 
changes  to  be  hereafter  gone  through  by  him.  So  with  all 
the  objects  around.  The  pre-existence  under  concrete  forms 
of  the  woollens,  silks,  and  cottons  we  wear,  we  can  trace 
some  distance  back.  We  are  certain  that  our  furniture 
consists  of  matter  which  was  aggregated  by  trees  within 
these  few  generations.  Even  of  the  stones  composing  the 
wralls  of  the  house,  we  are  able  to  say  that  years  or  centuries 
ago,  they  formed  parts  of  some  stratum  imbedded  in  the 
earth.  Moreover,  respecting  the  hereafter  of  the  wearable 
fabrics,  the  furniture,  and  the  walls,  we  can  assert  thus 
much,  that  they  are  all  in  process  of  decay,  and  in 
periods  of  various  lengths  will  lose  their  present  coherent 
shapes.  This  general  information  which  all  men 

gain  concerning  the  past  and  future  careers  of  surround- 
ing things,  Science  has  extended,  and  continues  unceas- 
ingly to  extend.  To  the  biography  of  the  individual  man, 
it  adds  an  intra-uterine  biography  beginning  with  him  as  a 
microscopic  germ;  and  it  follows  out  his  ultimate  changes 
until  it  finds  his  body  resolved  into  the  gaseous  products 
of  decomposition.  Not  stopping  short  at  the  sheep's  back 
and  the  caterpillar's  cocoon,  it  identifies  in  wTool  and  silk 
the  nitrogenous  matters  absorbed  by  the  sheep  and  the  cater- 
pillar from  plants.  The  substance  of  a  plant's  leaves,  in 
common  with  the  wood  from  which  furniture  is  made,  it 
again  traces  back  to  the  vegetal  assimilation  of  gases  from 
the  air  and  of  certain  minerals  from  the  soil.  And  in- 
quiring whence  came  the  stratum  of  stone  that  was  quar- 


290  EVOLUTION  AND  DISSOLUTION. 

ried  to  build  the  house,  it  finds  that  this  was  once  a  loose 
sediment  deposited  in  an  estuary  or  on  the  sea  bottom. 

If,  then,  the  past  and  the  future  of  each  object,  is  a 
sphere  of  possible  knowledge;  and  if  intellectual  progress 
consists  largely,  if  not  mainly,  in  widening  our  acquaint- 
ance with  this  past  and  this  future;  it  is  obvious  that  we 
have  not  acquired  all  the  information  within  the  grasp  of 
our  intelligence  until  we  can,  in  some  way  or  other,  express 
the  whole  past  and  the  whole  future  of  each  object  and  the 
aggregate  of  objects.  Usually  able,  as  Aye  are,  to  say  of  any 
visible  tangible  thing  how  it  came  to  have  its  present  shape 
and  consistence ;  we  are  fully  possessed  with  the  conviction 
that,  setting  out  abruptly  as  we  do  with  some  substance 
which  already  had  a  concrete  form,  our  history  is  incom- 
plete: the  thing  had  a  history  preceding  the  state  with 
which  we  started.  Hence  our  Theory  of  Things,  considered 
individually  or  in  their  totality,  is  confessedly  imperfect  so 
long  as  any  past  or  future  portions  of  their  sensible  exist- 
ences are  unaccounted  for. 

May  it  not  be  inferred  that  Philosophy  has  to  formulate 
this  passage  from  the  imperceptible  into  the  perceptible, 
and  again  from  the  perceptible  into  the  imperceptible?  Is 
it  not  clear  that  this  general  law  of  the  redistribution  of  mat- 
ter and  motion,  which  Ave  lately  saw  is  required  to  unify  the 
various  kinds  of  changes,  must  also  be  one  that  unifies  the 
successive  changes  which  sensible  existences,  separately  and 
together,  pass  through?  Only  by  some  formula  combining 
these  characters  can  knowledge  be  reduced  to  a  coherent 
whole. 

§  94.  Already  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  the  outline 
of  such  a  formula  is  foreshadowed.  Already  in  recognizing 
the  fact  that  Science,  tracing  back  the  genealogies  of  vari- 
ous objects,  finds  their  components  were  once  in  diffused 
states,  and  pursuing  their  histories  forwards,  finds  diffused 
states  will  be  again  assumed  by  them,  Ave  have  recognized 


EVOLUTION  AND  DISSOLUTION.  291 

the  fact  that  the  formula  must  be  one  comprehending  the 
two  opposite  processes  of  concentration  and  diffusion.  And 
already  in  thus  describing  the  general  nature  of  the  formula, 
we  have  approached  a  specific  expression  of  it.  The  change 
from  a  diffused,  imperceptible  state,  to  a  concentrated,  per- 
ceptible state,  is  an  integration  of  matter  and  concomitant 
dissipation  of  motion;  and  the  change  from  a  concentrated, 
perceptible  state,  to  a  diffused,  imperceptible  state,  is  an 
absorption  of  motion  and  concomitant  disintegration  of 
matter.  These  are  truisms.  Constituent  parts  cannot  ag- 
gregate without  losing  some  of  their  relative  motion;  and 
they  cannot  separate  without  more  relative  motion  being 
given  to  them.  We  are  not  concerned  here  with  any  motion 
which  the  components  of  a  mass  have  with  respect  to  other 
masses:  we  are  concerned  only  with  the  motion  they  have 
with  respect  to  one  another.  Confining  our  attention  to  this 
internal  motion,  and  to  the  matter  possessing  it,  the  axiom 
which  we  have  to  recognize  is  that  a  progressing  consolida- 
tion involves  a  decrease  of  internal  motion;  and  that  in- 
crease of  internal  motion  involves  a  progressing  unconsolida- 
tion.  , 

When  taken  together,  the  two  opposite  processes  thus 
formulated  constitute  the  history  of  every  sensible  exist- 
ence, under  its  simplest  form.  Loss  of  motion  and  conse- 
quent integration,  eventually  followed  by  gain  of  motion 
and  consequent  disintegration — see  here  a  statement  com- 
prehensive of  the  entire  series  of  changes  passed  through: 
comprehensive  in  an  extremely  general  way,  as  any  state- 
ment which  holds  of  sensible  existences  at  large  must  be; 
but  still,  comprehensive  in  the  sense  that  all  the  changes 
gone  through  fall  within  it.  This  will  probably  be  thought 
too  sweeping  an  assertion;  but  we  shall  quickly  find  it 
justified. 

§  95.  For  here  we  have  to  note  the  further  all-impor- 
tant fact,  that  every  change  undergone  by  every  sensible  ex- 


292  EVOLUTION  AND  DISSOLUTION. 

istence,  is  a  change  in  one  or  other  of  these  two  opposite 
directions.  Apparently  an  aggregate  which  has  passed  out 
of  some  originally  discrete  state  into  a  concrete  state,  there- 
after remains  for  an  indefinite  period  without  undergoing 
further  integration,  and  without  beginning  to  disintegrate. 
But  this  is  untrue.  All  things  are  growing  or  decaying, 
accumulating  matter  or  wearing  away,  integrating  or  disin- 
tegrating. All  things  are  varying  in  their  temperatures, 
contracting  or  expanding,  integrating  or  disintegrating. 
Both  the  quantity  of  matter  contained  in  an  aggregate,  and 
the  quantity  of  motion  contained  in  it,  increase  or  decrease ; 
and  increase  or  decrease  of  either  is  an  advance  towards 
greater  diffusion  or  greater  concentration.  Continued  losses 
or  gains  of  substance,  however  slow,  imply  ultimate  disap- 
pearance or  indefinite  enlargement;  and  losses  or  gains  of 
the  insensible  motion  we  call  heat,  will,  if  continued,  pro- 
duce complete  integration  or  complete  disintegration.  The 
sun's  rays  falling  on  a  cold  mass,  augmenting  the  molecular 
motions  throughout  it,  and  causing  it  to  occupy  more  space, 
are  beginning  a  process  which  if  carried  far  will  disintegrate 
the  mass  into  liquid,  and  if  carried  farther  will  disintegrate 
the  liquid  into  gas;  and  the  diminution  of  bulk  which  a 
volume  of  gas  undergoes  as  it  parts  with  some  of  its  molecu- 
lar motion,  is  a  diminution  which,  if  the  loss  of  molecular 
motion  proceeds,  will  presently  be  followed  by  liquefaction 
and  eventually  by  solidification.  And  since  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  an  absolutely  constant  temperature,  the  necessary 
inference  is  that  every  aggregate  is  at  every  moment  pro- 
gressing towards  either  greater  concentration  or  greater 
diffusion. 

Xot  only  does  all  change  consisting  in  the  addition  or 
subtraction  of  matter  come  under  this  head;  and  not  only 
does  this  head  include  all  change  called  thermal  expansion 
or  contraction;  but  it  is  also,  in  a  general  way,  comprehen- 
sive of  all  change  distinguished  as  transposition.  Every  in- 
ternal redistribution  which  leaves  the  component  molecules 


EVOLUTION  AND  DISSOLUTION.  293 

or  the  constituent  portions  of  a  mass  differently  placed  with 
respect  to  one  another,  is  sure  to  be  at  the  same  time  a 
progress  towards  integration  or  towards  disintegration — is 
sure  to  have  altered  in  some  degree  the  total  space  occupied. 
For  when  the  parts  have  been  moved  relatively  to  one 
another,  the  chances  are  infinity  to  one  that  their  average 
distances  from  the  common  centre  of  the  aggregate  are  no 
longer  the  same.  Hence  whatever  be  the  special  character 
of  the  redistribution — be  it  that  of  superficial  accretion  or 
detachment,  be  it  that  of  general  expansion  or  contraction, 
be  it  that  of  re-arrangement,  it  is  always  an  advance  in 
integration  or  disintegration.  It  is  always  this,  though  it 
may  at  the  same  time  be  something  further. 

§  96.  A  general  idea  of  these  universal  actions  under 
their  simplest  aspects  having  been  obtained,  we  may  now 
consider  them  under  certain  relatively  complex  aspects. 
Changes  towards  greater  concentration  or  greater  diffusion, 
nearly  always  proceed  after  a  manner  much  more  involved 
than  that  above  described.  Thus  far  we  have  supposed  one 
or  other  of  the  two  opposite  processes  to  go  on  alone — we 
have  supposed  an  aggregate  to  be  either  losing  motion  and 
integrating  or  gaining  motion  and  disintegrating.  But 
though  it  is  true  that  every  change  furthers  one  or  other  of 
these  processes,  it  is  not  true  that  either  process  is  ever 
wholly  unqualified  by  the  other.  For  each  aggregate  is  at 
all  times  both  gaining  motion  and  losing  motion. 

Every  mass  from  a  grain  of  sand  to  a  planet,  radiates 
heat  to  other  masses,  and  absorbs  heat  radiated  by  other 
masses ;  and  in  so  far  as  it  does  the  one  it  becomes  integrated, 
while  in  so  far  as  it  does  the  other  it  becomes  disintegrated. 
Ordinarily  in  inorganic  objects  this  double  process  works 
but  unobtrusive  effects.  Only  in  a  few  cases,  among  which 
that  of  a  cloud  is  the  most  familiar,  does  the  conflict 
produce  rapid  and  marked  transformations.  One  of  these 
floating  bodies  of  vapour  expands  and  dissipates,  if  the 


294  EVOLUTION  AND  DISSOLUTION. 

amount  of  molecular  motion  it  receives  from  the  Sun  and 
Earth,  exceeds  that  which  it  loses  by  radiation  into  space 
and  towards  adjacent  surfaces;  while,  contrariwise,  if,  drift- 
ing over  cold  mountain  tops,  it  radiates  to  thern  much  more 
heat  than  it  receives,  the  loss  of  molecular  motion  is  fol- 
lowed by  increasing  integration  of  the  vapour,  ending  in 
the  aggregation  of  it  into  liquid  and  the  fall  of  rain.  Here, 
as  elsewhere,  the  integration  or  the  disintegration  is  a  differ- 
ential result. 

In  living  aggregates,  and  more  especially  those  classed 
as  animals,  these  conflicting  processes  go  on  with  great  activ- 
ity under  several  forms.  There  is  not  merely  what  we  may 
call  the  passive  integration  of  matter,  that  results  in  inani- 
mate objects  from  simple  molecular  attractions;  but  there  is 
an  active  integration  of  it  under  the  form  of  food.  In  addi- 
tion to  that  passive  superficial  disintegration  which  inani- 
mate objects  suffer  from  external  agents,  animals  produce  in 
themselves  active  internal  disintegration,  by  absorbing  such 
agents  into  their  substance.  While,  like  inorganic  aggre- 
gates, they  passively  give  off  and  receive  motion,  they  are 
also  active  absorbers  of  motion  latent  in  food,  and  active  ex- 
penders  of  that  motion.  But  notwithstanding  this  compli- 
cation of  the  two  processes,  and  the  immense  exaltation  of 
the  conflict  between  them,  it  remains  true  that  there  is 
always  a  differential  progress  towards  either  integration  or 
disintegration.  During  the  earlier  part  of  the  cycle  of 
changes,  the  integration  predominates — there  goes  on  what 
we  call  growth.  The  middle  part  of  the  cycle  is  usually 
characterized,  not  by  equilibrium  between  the  integrating 
and  disintegrating  processes,  but  by  alternate  excesses  of 
them.  And  the  cycle  closes  with  a  period  in  which  the  dis- 
integration, beginning  to  predominate,  eventually  puts  a 
stop  to  integration,  and  undoes  what  integration  had  origi- 
nally done.  At  no  moment  are  assimilation  and  waste  so 
balanced  that  no  increase  or  decrease  of  mass  is  going  on. 
Even  in  cases  where  one  part  is  growing  while  other  parts 


EVOLUTION  AND  DISSOLUTION.  295 

are  dwindling,  and  even  in  cases  where  different  parts  are 
differently  exposed  to  external  sources  of  motion  so  that 
some  are  expanding  while  others  are  contracting,  'the  truth 
still  holds.  For  the  chances  are  infinity  to  one  against 
these  opposite  changes  balancing  one  another;  and  if  they 
do  not  balance  one  another,  the  aggregate  as  a  whole  is 
integrating  or  disintegrating. 

Everywhere  and  to  the  last,  therefore,  the  change  at  any 
moment  going  on  forms  a  part  of  one  or  other  of  the  two 
processes.  While  the  general  history  of  every  aggregate  is 
definable  as  a  change  from  a  diffused  imperceptible  state  to 
a  concentrated  perceptible  state,  and  again  to  a  diffused  im- 
perceptible state;  every  detail  of  the  history  is  definable  as 
a  part  of  either  the  one  change  or  the  other.  This,  then, 
must  be  that  universal  law  of  redistribution  of  matter  and 
motion,  which  serves  at  once  to  unify  the  seemingly  diverse 
groups  of  changes,  as  well  as  the  entire  course  of  each  group. 

§  97.  The  processes  thus  everywhere  in  antagonism,  and 
everywhere  gaining  now  a  temporary  and  now  a  more  or 
less  permanent  triumph  the  one  over  the  other,  we  call  Evo- 
lution and  Dissolution.  Evolution  under  its  simplest  and 
most  general  aspect  is  the  integration  of  matter  and  con- 
comitant dissipation  of  motion ;  while  Dissolution  is  the  ab- 
sorption of  motion  and  concomitant  disintegration  of  mat- 
ter. 

These  titles  are  by  no  means  all  that  is  desirable;  or 
rather  we  may  say  that  while  the  last  answers  its  purpose 
tolerably  well,  the  first  is  open  to  grave  objections.  Evolu- 
tion has  other  meanings,  some  of  which  are  incongruous 
with,  and  some  even  directly  opposed  to,  the  meaning  here 
given  to  it.  The  evolution  of  a  gas  is  literally  an  absorp- 
tion of  motion  and  disintegration  of  matter,  which  is  exactly 
the  reverse  of  that  which  we  here  call  Evolution — is  that 
which  we  here  call  Dissolution.  As  ordinarily  understood, 
to  evolve  is  to  unfold,  to  open  and  expand,  to  throw  out,  to 


296  EVOLUTION  AXD  DISSOLUTION. 

emit;  whereas  as  we  understand  it,  the  act  of  evolving, 
though  it  implies  increase  of  a  concrete  aggregate,  and  in 
so  far  an  expansion  of  it,  implies  that  its  component  matter 
has  passed  from  a  more  diffused  to  a  more  concentrated 
state — has  contracted.  The  antithetical  word  Involution 
would  much  more  truly  express  the  nature  of  the  process; 
and  would,  indeed,  describe  better  the  secondary  characters 
of  the  process  which  we  shall  have  to  deal  with  presently. 
We  are  obliged,  however,  notwithstanding  the  liabilities  to 
confusion  that  must  result  from  these  unlike  and  even  con- 
tradictory meanings,  to  use  Evolution  as  antithetical  to  Dis- 
solution. The  word  is  now  so  widely  recognized  as  signify- 
ing, not,  indeed,  the  general  process  above  described,  but 
sundry  of  the  most  conspicuous  varieties  of  it,  and  certain  of 
its  secondary  but  most  remarkable  accompaniments,  that  we 
cannot  now  substitute  another  word.  All  we  can  do  is 
carefully  to  define  the  interpretation  to  be  given  to  it. 

"While,  then,  we  shall  by  Dissolution  everywhere  mean 
the  process  tacitly  implied  by  its  ordinary  meaning — the  ab- 
sorption of  motion  and  disintegration  of  matter;  we  shall 
everywhere  mean  by  Evolution,  the  process  which  is  always 
an  integration  of  matter  and  dissipation  of  motion,  but 
which,  as  we  shall  now  see,  is  in  most  cases  much  more 
than  this. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

SIMPLE    AND    COMPOUND    EVOLUTION. 

§  98.  Where  the  only  forces  at  work  are  those  directly 
tending  to  produce  aggregation  or  diffusion,  the  whole  his- 
tory of  an  aggregate  will  comprise  no  more  than  the  ap- 
proaches of  its  components  towards  their  common  centre 
and  their  recessions  from  their  common  centre.  The  pro- 
cess of  Evolution,  including  nothing  beyond  what  was  de- 
scribed at  the  outset  of  the  last  chapter,  will  be  simple. 

Again,  in  cases  where  the  forces  which  cause  movements 
towards  a  common  centre  are  greatly  in  excess  of  all  other 
forces,  any  changes  additional  to  those  constituting  aggre- 
gation will  be  comparatively  insignificant — there  will  be 
integration  scarcely  at  all  modified  by  further  kinds  of  re- 
distribution. 

Or  if,  because  of  the  smallness  of  the  mass  to  be  inte- 
grated, or  because  of  the  little  motion  the  mass  receives  from 
without  in  return  for  the  motion  it  loses,  the  integration  pro- 
ceeds rapidly ;  there  will  similarly  be  wrought  but  insignifi- 
cant effects  on  the  integrating  mass  by  incident  forces,  even 
though  these  are  considerable. 

But  when,  conversely,  the  integration  is  but  slow ;  either 
because  the  quantity  of  motion  contained  in  the  aggregate 
is  relatively  great;  or  because,  though  the  quantity  of 
motion  which  each  part  possesses  is  not  relatively  great,  the 
large  size  of  the  aggregate  prevents  easy  dissipation  of  the 
motion;  or  because,  though  motion  is  rapidly  lost  more 
21  297 


298  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION. 

motion  is  rapidly  received;  then,  other  forces  will  cause  in 
the  aggregate  appreciable  modifications.  Along  with  the 
change  constituting  integration,  there  will  take  place  sup- 
plementary changes.  The  Evolution,  instead  of  being  sim- 
ple, will  be  compound. 

The  several  propositions  thus  briefly  enunciated  require 
some  explanation. 

§  99.  So  long  as  a  body  moves  freely  through  space, 
every  force  that  acts  on  it  produces  an  equivalent  in  the 
shape  of  some  change  in  its  motion.  ~No  matter  how  high 
its  velocity,  the  slightest  lateral  traction  or  resistance  causes 
it  to  deviate  from  its  line  of  movement — causes  it  to  move 
towards  the  new  source  of  traction  or  away  from  the  new 
source  of  resistance,  just  as  much  as  it  would  do  had  it  no 
other  motion.  And  the  effect  of  the  perturbing  influence 
goes  on  accumulating  in  the  ratio  of  the  squares  of  the  times 
during  which  its  action  continues  uniform.  This  same  body, 
however,  will,  if  it  is  united  in  certain  ways  with  other 
bodies,  cease  to  be  moveable  by  small  incident  forces. 
When  it  is  held  fast  by  gravitation  or  cohesion,  these  small 
incident  forces,  instead  of  giving  it  some  relative  motion 
through  space,  are  otherwise  dissipated. 

What  here  holds  of  masses,  holds,  in  a  qualified  way,  of 
the  sensible  parts  of  masses,  and  of  molecules.  As  the 
sensible  parts  of  a  mass,  and  the  molecules  of  a  mass,  are, 
by  virtue  of  their  aggregation,  not  perfectly  free,  it  is  not 
true  of  each  of  them,  as  of  a  body  moving  through  space, 
that  every  incident  force  produces  an  equivalent  change  of 
position:  part  of  the  force  goes  in  working  other  changes. 
But  in  proportion  as  the  parts  or  the  molecules  are  feebly 
bound  together,  incident  forces  effect  marked  re-arrange- 
ments among  them.  At  the  one  extreme,  where  the  in- 
tegration is  so  slight  that  the  parts,  sensible  or  insensible, 
are  almost  independent,  they  are  almost  completely  amen- 
able to  every  additional  action;  and  along  with  the  con- 


SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION.  299 

centration  going  on  there  go  on  other  re-distributions. 
Contrariwise,  where  the  parts  have  approached  within  such 
small  distances  that  what  we  call  the  attraction  of  cohesion 
is  great,  additional  actions,  unless  intense,  cease  to  have 
much  power  to  cause  secondary  re-arrangements.  The 
firmly-united  parts  no  longer  readily  change  their  relative 
positions  in  obedience  to  small  perturbing  influences;  but 
each  small  perturbing  influence  usually  does  little  or  noth- 
ing more  than  temporarily  modify  the  insensible  molecular 
motions. 

How  may  we  best  express  this  difference  in  the  most 
general  terms?  An  aggregate  that  is  widely  diffused,  or  but 
little  integrated,  is  an  aggregate  that  contains  a  large  quan- 
tity of  motion — actual  or  potential  or  both.  An  aggregate 
that  has  become  completely  integrated  or  dense,  is  one  that 
contains  comparatively  little  motion :  most  of  the  motion  its 
parts  once  had  has  been  lost  during  the  integration  that  has 
rendered  it  dense.  Hence,  other  things  equal,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  motion  which  an  aggregate  contains 
will  be  the  quantity  of  secondary  change  in  the  arrangement 
of  its  parts  that  accompanies  the  primary  change  in  their 
arrangement.  Hence  also,  other  things  equal,  in  proportion 
to  the  time  during  which  the  internal  motion  is  retained,  will 
be  the  quantity  of  this  secondary  re-distribution  that  accom- 
panies the  primary  re-distribution.  It  matters  not  how  these 
conditions  are  fulfilled.  Whether  the  internal  motion  con- 
tinues great  because  the  components  are  of  a  kind  that  will 
not  readily  aggregate,  or  because  surrounding  conditions 
prevent  them  from  parting  with  their  motion,  or  because 
the  loss  of  their  motion  is  impeded  by  the  size  of  the  aggre- 
gate they  form,  or  because  they  directly  or  indirectly  obtain 
more  motion  in  place  of  that  which  they  lose;  it  through- 
out remains  true  that  much  retained  internal  motion  must 
render  secondary  re-distribution  facile,  and  that  long  re- 
tention of  it  must  make  possible  an  accumulation  of  such 
secondary  re-distributions.     Conversely,  the  non-fulfilment 


300  SIMPLE  AND   COMPOUND  EVOLUTION 

of  these  conditions,  however  caused,  entails  opposite  results. 
Be  it  that  the  components  of  the  aggregate  have  special 
aptitudes  to  integrate  quickly,  or  be  it  that  the  smallness  of 
the  aggregate  formed  of  them  permits  the  easy  escape  of 
their  motion,  or  be  it  that  they  receive  little  or  no  motion 
in  exchange  for  that  which  they  part  with;  it  alike  holds 
that  but  little  secondary  re-distribution  can  accompany  the 
primary  re-distribution  constituting  their  integration. 

These  abstract  propositions  will  not  be  fully  understood 
without  illustrations.  Let  us,  before  studying  simple  and 
compound  Evolution  as  thus  determined,  contemplate  a  few 
cases  in  which  the  quantity  of  internal  motion  is  artificially 
changed,  and  note  the  effects  on  the  re-arrangement  of 
parts. 

§  100.  We  may  fitly  begin  with  a  familiar  experience, 
introducing  the  general  principle  under  a  rude  but  easily 
comprehensible  form.  AY  hen  a  vessel  has  been  filled  to  the 
brim  with  loose  fragments,  shaking  the  vessel  causes  them 
to  settle  down  into  less  space,  so  that  more  may  be  put  in. 
And  when  among  the  fragments  there  are  some  of  much 
greater  specific  gravity  than  the  rest,  these,  in  the  course  of 
a  prolonged  shaking,  find  their  way  to  the  bottom.  What 
now  is  the  meaning  of  such  results,  when  expressed  in 
general  terms?  "We  have  a  group  of  units  acted  on  by  an 
incident  force — the  attraction  of  the  Earth.  So  long  as 
these  units  are  not  agitated,  this  incident  force  produces  no 
changes  in  their  relative  positions;  agitate  them,  and  im- 
mediately their  loose  arrangement  passes  into  a  more  com- 
pact arrangement.  Again,  so  long  as  they  are  not  agitated, 
the  incident  force  cannot  separate  the  heavier  units  from 
the  lighter;  agitate  them,  and  immediately  the  heavier  units 
begin  to  segregate.  Mechanical  disturbances  of 

more  minute  kinds,  acting  on  the  parts  of  much  denser  ag- 
gregates, produce  analogous  effects.  A  piece  of  iron  which, 
when  it  leaves  the  workshop,  is  fibrous  in  structure,  be- 


SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND   EVOLUTION.  301 

comes  crystalline  if  exposed  to  a  perpetual  jar.  The  polar 
forces  mutually  exercised  by  the  atoms,  fail  to  change  the 
disorderly  arrangement  into  an  orderly  arrangement  while 
the  atoms  are  relatively  quiescent;  but  these  forces  succeed 
in  re-arranging  them  when  the  atoms  are  kept  in  a  state  of 
intestine  agitation.  Similarly,  the  fact  that  a«bar  of  steel 
suspended  in  the  magnetic  meridian  and  repeatedly  struck, 
becomes  magnetized,  is  ascribed  to  a  re-arrangement  of  par- 
ticles that  is  produced  by  the  magnetic  force  of  the  Earth 
when  vibrations  are  propagated  through  them,  but  is  not 
otherwise  produced.  Now  imperfectly  as  these 

cases  parallel  the  mass  of  those  we  are  considering,  they 
nevertheless  serve  roughly  to  illustrate  the  effect  which 
adding  to  the  quantity  of  motion  an  aggregate  contains,  has 
in  facilitating  re-arrangement  of  its  parts. 

More  fully  illustrative  are  the  instances  in  which,  by  ar- 
tificially adding  to  or  subtracting  from  that  molecular  mo- 
tion which  we  call  its  heat,  we  give  an  aggregate  increased 
or  diminished  facility  of  re-arranging  its  molecules.  The 
process  of  tempering  steel  or  annealing  glass,  shows  us  that 
internal  re-distribution  is  aided  by  insensible  vibrations,  as 
we  have  just  seen  it  to  be  by  sensible  vibrations.  When 
some  molten  glass  is  dropped  into  water,  and  when  its  out- 
side is  thus,  by  sudden  solidification,  prevented  from  par- 
taking in  that  contraction  which  the  subsequent  cooling  of 
the  inside  tends  to  produce;  the  units  are  left  in  such  a 
state  of  tension,  that  the  mass  flies  into  fragments  if  a  small 
portion  of  it  be  broken  off.  But  if  this  mass  be  kept  for  a 
day  or  two  at  a  considerable  heat,  though  a  heat  not  suffi- 
cient to  alter  its  form  or  produce  any  sensible  diminution  of 
hardness,  this  extreme  brittleness  disappears:  the  com- 
ponent particles  being  thrown  into  greater  agitation,  the 
tensile  forces  are  enabled  to  re-arrange  them  into  a  state  of 
equilibrium.  Much  more  conspicuously  do  we  see 

the  effect  of  the  insensible  motion  called  heat,  where  the 
re-arrangement  of  parts  taking  place  is  that  of  visible  segre- 


302  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION. 

gation.  An  instance  is  furnished  by  the  subsidence  of  fine 
precipitates.  These  sink  down  very  slowly  from  solutions 
that  are  cold;  while  warm  solutions  deposit  them  with  com- 
parative rapidity.  That  is  to  say,  exalting  the  molecular 
oscillation  throughout  the  mass,  allows  the  suspended 
particles  to  separate  more  readily  from  the  particles  of 
fluid.  The  influence  of  heat  on  chemical  changes 

is  so  familiar,  that  examples  are  scarcely  needed.  Be  the 
substances  concerned  gaseous,  liquid,  or  solid,  it  equally 
holds  that  their  chemical  unions  and  disunions  are  aided  by 
rise  of  temperature.  Affinities  which  do  not  suffice  to  effect 
the  re-arrangement  of  mixed  units  that  are  in  a  state  of 
feeble  agitation,  suffice  to  effect  it  when  the  agitation  is 
raised  to  a  certain  point.  And  so  long  as  this  molecular  mo- 
tion is  not  great  enough  to  prevent  those  chemical  cohesions 
which  the  affinities  tend  to  produce,  increase  of  it  gives  in- 
creased facility  of  chemical  re-arrangement. 

Another  class  of  facts  may  be  adduced  which,  though 
not  apparently,  are  really  illustrative  of  the  same  general 
truth.  Other  things  equal,  the  liquid  form  of  matter  im- 
plies a  greater  quantity  of  contained  motion  than  the  solid 
form — the  liquidity  is  itself  a  consequence  of  such  greater 
quantity.  Hence,  an  aggregate  made  up  partly  of  liquid 
matter  and  partly  of  solid  matter,  contains  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  motion  than  one  which,  otherwise  like  it,  is  made  up 
wholly  of  solid  matter.  It  is  inferable,  then,  that  a  liquid- 
solid  aggregate,  or,  as  we  commonly  call  it,  a  plastic  aggre- 
gate, will  admit  of  internal  redistribution  with  comparative 
facility;  and  the  inference  is  verified  by  experience.  A 
magma  of  unlike  substances  ground  up  with  water,  while  it 
continues  thin  allows  a  settlement  of  its  heavier  components 
— a  separation  of  them  from  the  lighter.  As  the  water 
evaporates  this  separation  is  impeded,  and  ceases  when  the 
magma  becomes  very  thick.  But  even  when  it  has  reached 
the  semi-solid  state  in  which  gravitation  fails  to  cause 
further  segregation  of  its  mixed  components,  other  forces 


SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION.  303 

may  still  continue  to  produce  segregation:  witness  the  fact 
to  which  attention  was  first  drawn  by  Mr.  Babhage,  that 
when  the  pasty  mixture  of  ground  flints  and  kaolin,  pre- 
pared for  the  manufacture  of  porcelain,  is  kept  some  time, 
it  becomes  gritty  and  unfit  for  use,  in  consequence  of  the 
particles  of  silica  separating  themselves  from  the  rest,  and 
uniting  together  in  grains;  or  witness  the  fact  known  to 
every  housewife,  that  in  long-kept  currant-jelly  the  sugar 
takes  the  shape  of  imbedded  crystals. 

No  matter  then  under  what  form  the  motion  contained 
by  an  aggregate  exists — be  it  mere  mechanical  agitation,  or 
the  mechanical  vibrations  such  as  produce  sound,  be  it 
molecular  motion  absorbed  from  without,  or  the  constitu- 
tional molecular  motion  of  some  component  liquid,  the 
same  truth  holds  throughout.  Incident  forces  work  second- 
ary re-distributions  easily  when  the  contained  motion  is 
large  in  quantity;  and  work  them  with  increasing  diffi- 
culty as  the  contained  motion  diminishes. 

§  101.  Yet  another  class  of  facts  that  fall  within  the 
same  generalization,  little  as  they  seem  related  to  it,  must 
be  indicated  before  proceeding.  They  are  those  presented 
by  certain  contrasts  in  chemical  stability.  Speaking  gener- 
ally, stable  compounds  contain  comparatively  little  molecu- 
lar motion;  and  in  proportion  as  the  contained  molecular 
motion  is  great  the  instability  is  great. 

The  common  and  marked  illustration  of  this  to  be  first 
named,  is  that  chemical  stability  decreases  as  temperature 
increases.  Compounds  of  which  the  elements  are  strongly 
united  and  compounds  of  which  the  elements  are  feebly 
united,  are  alike  in  this,  that  raising  their  heats  or  increasing 
the  quantities  of  their  contained  molecular  motion,  dimin- 
ishes the  strengths  of  the  unions  of  their  elements;  and  by 
continually  adding  to  the  quantity  of  contained  molecular 
motion,  a  point  is  in  each  case  reached  at  which  the  chemical 
union  is  destroyed.     That  is  to  say,  the  re-distribution  of 


304  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION. 

matter  which  constitutes  simple  chemical  decomposition,  is 
easy  in  proportion  as  the  quantity  of  contained  motion  is 
great.  The  like  holds  with  double  decomposi- 

tions. Two  compounds,  A  B  and  C  D,  mingled  together 
and  kept  at  a  low  temperature,  may  severally  remain  un- 
changed— the  cross  affinities  between  their  components 
may  fail  to  cause  re-distribution.  Increase  the  heat  of  the 
mixture,  or  add  to  the  molecular  motion  throughout  it,  and 
re-distribution  takes  place;  ending  in  the  formation  of  the 
compounds,  A  C  and  B  D. 

Another  chemical  truth  having  a  like  implication,  is 
that  chemical  elements  which,  as  they  ordinarily  exist, 
contain  much  motion,  have  combinations  less  stable  than 
those  of  which  the  elements,  as  they  ordinarily  exist,  contain 
little  motion.  The  gaseous  form  of  matter  implies  a  rela- 
tively large  amount  of  molecular  motion;  while  the  solid 
form  implies  a  relatively  small  amount  of  molecular  motion. 
What  are  the  characters  of  their  respective  compounds? 
The  compounds  which  the  permanent  gases  form  with  one 
another,  cannot  resist  high  temperatures:  most  of  them 
are  easily  decomposed  by  heat;  and  at  a  red  heat,  even 
the  stronger  ones  yield  up  their  components.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  chemical  unions  between  elements  that 
are  solid  except  at  very  high  temperatures,  are  ex- 
tremely stable.  In  many,  if  not  indeed  in  most,  cases, 
such  combined  elements  are  not  separable  by  any  heat  we 
can  produce. 

There  is,  again,  the  relation,  which  appears  to  have  a 
kindred  meaning,  between  instability  and  amount  of  com- 
position. "  In  general,  the  molecular  heat  of  a  compound 
increases  with  the  degree  of  complexity."  With  increase  of 
complexity  there  also  goes  increased  facility  of  decomposi- 
tion. Whence  it  follows  that  molecules  which  contain 
much  motion  in  virtue  of  their  complexity,  are  those  of 
which  the  components  are  most  readily  re-distributed. 
This  holds  not  only  of  the  complexity  resulting  from  the 


SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION.  305 

Union  of  several  unlike  elements;  but  it  holds  also  of  the 
complexity  resulting  from  the  union  of  the  same  elements 
in  higher  multiples.  Matter  has  two  solid  states,  distin- 
guished as  crystalloid  and  colloid;  of  which  the  first  is  due 
to  union  of  the  individual  atoms  or  molecules,  and  the  sec- 
ond to  the  union  of  groups  of  such  individual  atoms  or  mole- 
cules; and  of  which  the  first  is  stable  and  the  second 
unstable. 

But  the  most  striking  and  conclusive  illustration  is  fur- 
nished by  the  combinations  into  which  nitrogen  enters. 
These  have  the  two  characters  of  being  specially  unstable 
and  of  containing  specially  great  quantities  of  motion.  A 
recently-ascertained  peculiarity  of  nitrogen,  is,  that  instead 
of  giving  out  heat  when  it  combines  with  other  elements,  it 
absorbs  heat.  That  is  to  say,  besides  carrying  with  it  into 
the  liquid  or  solid  compound  it  forms,  the  motion  which 
previously  constituted  it  a  gas,  it  takes  up  additional  mo- 
tion; and  where  the  other  element  with  which  it  unites  is 
gaseous,  the  molecular  motion  proper  to  this,  also,  is  locked 
up  in  the  compound.  Now  these  nitrogen-compounds 
are  unusually  prone  to  decompositon ;  and  the  decom- 
positions of  many  of  them  take  place  with  extreme  vio- 
lence. All  our  explosive  substances  are  nitrogenous — the 
most  terribly  destructive  of  them  all,  chloride  of  nitrogen, 
being  one  which  contains  the  immense  quantity  of  motion 
proper  to  its  component  gases,  plus  a  certain  further  quan- 
tity of  motion. 

Clearly  these  general  chemical  truths,  are  parts  of  the 
more  general  physical  truth  we  are  tracing  out.  We  see 
in  them  that  what  holds  of  sensible  aggregates,  holds  also 
of  the  insensible  aggregates  we  call  molecules.  Like  the 
aggregates  formed  of  them,  these  ultimate  aggregates  be- 
come more  or  less  integrated  according  as  they  lose  or  gain 
motion ;  and  like  them  also,  according  as  they  contain  much 
or  little  motion,  they  are  liable  to  undergo  secondary  re-dis- 
tributions of  parts  along  with  the  primary  re-distribution. 


306  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION. 

§  102.  And  now  having  got  this  general  principle  clear- 
ly into  view,  let  lis  go  on  to  observe  how,  in  conformity  with 
it,  Evolution  becomes,  according  to  the  conditions,  either 
simple  or  compound. 

If  a  little  sal-ammoniac,  or  other  volatile  solid,  be  heat- 
ed, it  is  disintegrated  by  the  absorbed  molecular  motion,  and 
rises  in  gas.  When  the  gas  so  produced,  coming  in  con- 
tact with  a  cold  surface,  loses  its  excess  of  molecular  mo- 
tion, integration  takes  place — the  substance  assumes  the 
form  of  crystals.  This  is  a  case  of  simple  evolution.  The 
process  of  concentration  of  matter  and  dissipation  of  motion 
does  not  here  proceed  in  a  gradual  manner — does  not  pass 
through  stages  occupying  considerable  periods;  but  the 
molecular  motion  which  reduced  it  to  the  gaseous  state 
being  dissipated,  the  matter  passes  suddenly  to  a  completely 
solid  state.  The  result  is  that  along  with  this  primary  re- 
distribution there  go  on  no  appreciable  secondary  re-dis- 
tributions. Substantially  the  same  thing  holds  with  crys- 
tals deposited  from  solutions.  Loss  of  that  molecular  mo- 
tion which,  down  to  a  certain  point,  keeps  the  molecules 
from  uniting,  and  sudden  solidification  when  the  loss  goes 
below  that  point,  occur  here  as  before;  and  here  as  before, 
the  absence  of  a  period  during  which  the  molecules  are 
partially  free  and  gradually  losing  their  freedom,  is  accom- 
panied by  the  absence  of  supplementary  re-arrangements. 

Mark,  conversely,  what  happens  when  the  concentration 
is  slow.  A  gaseous  mass  losing  its  heat,  and  undergoing  a 
consequent  decrease  of  bulk,  is  not  subject  only  to  this 
change  which  brings  its  parts  nearer  to  their  common  cen- 
tre, but  also  to  many  simultaneous  changes.  The  great 
quantity  of  molecular  motion  contained  in  it,  giving,  as  we 
have  seen  that  it  must,  great  molecular  mobility,  renders 
every  part  sensitive  to  every  incident  force ;  and,  as  a  result, 
its  parts  have  various  motions  besides  that  implied  by  their 
progressing  integration.  Indeed  these  secondary  motions 
which  we  know  as  currents,  are  so  important  and  conspicu- 


SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION.  307 

ons  as  quite  to  subordinate  the  primary  motion.  Sup- 

pose that  presently,  the  loss  of  molecular  motion  has  reached 
that  point  at  which  the  gaseous  state  can  no  longer  be 
maintained,  and  condensation  follows.  Under  their  more 
closely-united  form,  the  parts  of  the  aggregate  display, 
to  a  considerable  degree,  the  same  phenomena  as  before. 
The  molecular  motion  and  accompanying  molecular  mobil- 
ity implied  by  the  liquid  state,  permit  easy  re-arrangement ; 
and  hence,  along  with  further  contraction  of  volume,  con- 
sequent on  further  loss  of  motion,  there  go  on  rapid  and 
marked  changes  in  the  relative  positions  of  parts — local 
streams  produced  by  slight  disturbing  forces.  But 

now,  assuming  the  substance  to  be  formed  of  molecules  that 
have  not  those  peculiarities  leading  to  the  sudden  inte- 
gration which  we  call  crystallization,  what  happens  as  the 
molecular  motion  further  decreases?  The  liquid  thickens 
— its  parts  cease  to  be  relatively  moveable  among  one  an- 
other with  ease;  and  the  transpositions  caused  by  feeble 
incident  forces  become  comparatively  slow.  Little  by  little 
the  currents  are  stopped,  but  the  mass  still  continues  modi- 
fiable by  stronger  incident  forces.  Gravitation  makes  it 
bend  or  spread  out  when  not  supported  on  all  sides;  and  it 
may  easily  be  indented.  As  it  cools,  however,  it  continues 
to  grow  stiffer  as  we  say — less  capable  of  having  its  parts 
changed  in  their  relative  positions.  And  eventually,  further 
loss  of  heat  rendering  it  quite  hard,  its  parts  are  no  longer 
appreciably  re-arrangeable  by  any  save  violent  actions. 

Among  inorganic  aggregates,  then,  secondary  re-dis- 
tributions accompany  the  primary  re-distribution,  through- 
out the  whole  process  of  concentration,  where  this  is  gradual. 
During  the  gaseous  and  liquid  stages,  the  secondary  re-dis- 
tributions, rapid  and  extensive  as  they  are,  leave  no  traces — 
the  molecular  mobility  being  such  as  to  negative  the  fixed 
arrangements  of  parts  we  call  structure.  On  apj^roaching 
solidity  we  arrive  at  a  condition  called  plastic,  in  which  re- 
distributions can  still  be  made,  though  much  less  easily; 


308  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION. 

and  in  which,  being  changeable  less  easily,  they  have  a 
certain  persistence — a  persistence  which  can,  however,  be- 
come decided,  only  where  further  solidification  stops  further 
re-distribution. 

Here  we  see,  in  the  first  place,  what  are  the  conditions 
under  which  Evolution  instead  of  being  simple  becomes 
compound,  while  we  see,  in  the  second  place,  how  the  com- 
pounding of  it  can  be  carried  far  only  under  conditions 
more  special  than  any  hitherto  contemplated;  since,  on  the 
one  hand,  a  large  amount  of  secondary  re-distribution  is 
possible  only  where  there  is  a  great  quantity  of  contained 
motion,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  these  re-distributions  can 
have  permanence  only  where  the  contained  motion  has  be- 
come small — opposing  conditions  which  seem  to  negative 
any  large  amount  of  permanent  secondary  re-distribution. 

§  103.  And  now  we  are  in  a  position  to  observe  how 
these  apparently  contradictory  conditions  are  reconciled; 
and  how,  by  the  reconciliation  of  them,  permanent  second- 
ary re-distributions  immense  in  extent  are  made  possible. 
"We  shall  appreciate  the  distinctive  peculiarity  of  the  aggre- 
gates classed  as  organic,  in  which  Evolution  becomes  so  high- 
ly compounded ;  and  shall  see  that  this  peculiarity  consists  in 
the  combination  of  matter  into  a  form  embodying  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  motion  at  the  same  time  that  it  has  a  great 
degree  of  concentration. 

For  notwithstanding  its  semi-solid  consistence,  organic 
matter  contains  molecular  motion  locked  up  in  each  of  the 
ways  above  contemplated  separately.  Let  us  note  its  several 
constitutional  traits.  Three  out  of  its  four  chief 

components  are  gaseous;  and  in  their  uncombined  states  the 
gases  united  in  it  have  so  much  molecular  motion  that  they 
are  incondensible.  Hence  as  the  characters  of  elements, 
though  disguised,  cannot  be  absolutely  lost  in  combinations, 
it  is  to  be  inferred  that  the  protein-molecule  concentrates  a 
comparatively  large  amount  of  motion  in  a  small  space. 


SIMPLE  AND   COMPOUND  EVOLUTION.  309 

And  since  many  equivalents  of  these  gaseous  elements  unite 
in  one  of  these  protein-molecules,  there  must  be  in  it  a  large 
quantity  of  relative  motion  in  addition  to  that  which  the 
ultimate  atoms  possess.  Moreover,  organic  matter 

has  the  peculiarity  that  its  molecules  are  aggregated  into 
the  colloid  and  not  into  the  crystalloid  arrangement;  form- 
ing, as  is  supposed,  clusters  of  clusters  which  have 
movements  in  relation  to  one  another.  Here,  then, 
is  a  further  mode  in  which  molecular  motion  is  in- 
cluded. Yet  again,  these  compounds  of  which 
the  essential  parts  of  organisms  are  built,  are  nitrogenous; 
and  we  have  lately  seen  it  to  be  a  peculiarity  of  nitrogenous 
compounds,  that  instead  of  giving  out  heat  during  their 
formation  they  absorb  heat.  To  all  the  molecular  mo- 
tion possessed  by  gaseous  nitrogen,  is  added  more 
motion;  and  the  whole  is  concentrated  in  solid  pro- 
tein. Organic  aggregates  are  very  generally  dis- 
tinguished, too,  by  having  much  insensible  motion  in  a 
free  state — the  motion  we  call  heat.  Though  in  many  cases 
the  quantity  of  this  contained  insensible  motion  is  incon- 
siderable, in  other  cases  a  temperature  greatly  above  that 
of  the  environment  is  constantly  maintained.  Once 
more,  there  is  the  still  larger  quantity  of  motion  embodied 
by  the  water  that  permeates  organic  matter.  It  is  this 
which,  giving  to  the  water  its  high  molecular  mobility,  gives 
mobility  to  the  organic  molecules  partially  suspended  in  it; 
and  preserves  that  plastic  condition  which  so  greatly  facili- 
tates re-distribution. 

From  these  several  statements,  no  adequate  idea  can  be 
formed  of  the  extent  to  which  living  organic  substance  is 
thus  distinguished  from  other  substances  having  like  sen- 
sible forms  of  aggregation.  But  some  approximation  to  such 
an  idea  may  be  obtained  by  contrasting  the  bulk  occupied 
by  this  substance,  with  the  bulk  which  its  constituents  would 
occupy  if  uncombined.  An  accurate  comparison  cannot  be 
made   in   the   present  state  of  science.      What  expansion 


310  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION. 

would  occur  if  the  constituents  of  the  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds could  be  divorced  without  the  addition  of  motion 
from  without,  is  too  complex  a  question  to  be  answered. 
But  respecting  the  constituents  of  that  which  forms  some 
four-fifths  of  the  total  weight  of  an  ordinary  animal — its 
water — a  tolerably  definite  answer  can  be  given.  "Were  the 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  of  water  to  lose  their  affinities,  and 
were  no  molecular  motion  supplied  to  them  beyond  that  con- 
tained in  water  at  blood-heat,  they  would  assume  a  volume 
twenty  times  that  of  the  water."  Whether  protein  under 
like  conditions  would  expand  in  a  greater  or  a  less  degree, 
must  remain  an  open  question;  but  remembering  the  gase- 
ous nature  of  three  out  of  its  four  chief  components,  remem- 
bering the  above-named  peculiarity  of  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds, remembering  the  high  multiples  and  the  colloidal 
form,  we  may  conclude  that  the  expansion  would  be  great. 
We  shall  not  be  far  wrong,  therefore,  in  saying  that  the  ele- 
ments of  the  human  body  if  suddenly  disengaged  from  one 
another,  would  occupy  a  score  times  the  space  they  do :  the 
movements  of  their  atoms  would  compel  this  wide  diffusion. 
Thus  the  esential  characteristic  of  living  organic  matter, 
is  that  it  unites  this  large  quantity  of  contained  motion  with 
a  degree  of  cohesion  that  permits  temporary  fixity  of  ar- 
rangement. 

§  104.  Further  proofs  that  the  secondary  re-distribu- 
tions which  make  Evolution  compound,  depend  for  their 
possibility  on  the  reconciliation  of  these  conflicting  condi- 
tions, are  yielded  by  comparisons  of  organic  aggregates 
with  one  another.  Besides  seeing  that  organic  aggregates 
differ  from  other  aggregates,  alike  in  the  quantity  of  motion 
they  contain  and  the  amount  of  re-arrangement  of  parts  that 
accompanies  their  progressive  integration ;  we  shall  see  that 
among  organic  aggregates  themselves,  differences  in  the 

*  I  am  indebted  for  this  result  to  Dr.  Frankland,  who  has  been  good  enough 
to  have  the  calculation  made  for  me. 


SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION.  31 1 

quantities  of  contained  motion  are  accompanied  by  differ- 
ences in  the  amounts  of  re-distribution. 

The  contrasts  among  organisms  in  chemical  composition 
yield  us  the  first  illustration.  Animals  are  distinguished 
from  plants  by  their  far  greater  amounts  of  structure,  as 
well  as  by  the  far  greater  rapidity  with  which  changes  of 
structure  go  on  in  them;  and  in  comparison  with  plants, 
animals  are  at  the  same  time  conspicuous  for  containing  im- 
mensely larger  portions  of  those  highly-compounded  nitro- 
genous molecules  in  which  so  much  motion  is  locked  up. 
So,  too,  is  it  with  the  contrasts  between  the  different  parts  of 
each  animal.  Though  certain  nitrogenous  parts,  as  carti- 
lage, are  inert,  yet  the  parts  in  which  the  secondary  re-dis- 
tributions have  gone  on,  and  are  ever  going  on,  most  active- 
ly, are  those  in  which  the  most  highly-compounded  mole- 
cules predominate ;  and  parts  which,  like  the  deposits  of  fat, 
consist  of  relatively-simple  molecules,  are  seats  of  but  little 
structure  and  but  little  change. 

We  find  clear  proof,  too,  that  the  continuance  of  the 
secondary  re-distributions  by  which  organic  aggregates  are 
so  remarkably  distinguished,  depends  on  the  presence  of 
that  motion  contained  in  the  water  diffused  through  them; 
and  that,  other  things  equal,  there  is  a  direct  relation  be- 
tween the  amount  of  re-distribution  and  the  amount  of 
contained  water.  The  evidences  may  be  put  in  three 
groups.  There  is  the  familiar  fact  that  a  plant 

has  its  formative  changes  arrested  by  cutting  off  the  supply 
of  water:  the  primary  re-distribution  continues — it  withers 
and  shrinks  or  becomes  more  integrated — but  the  secondary 
re-distributions  cease.  There  is  the  less  familiar,  but  no 
less  certain,  fact,  that  the  like  result  occurs  in  animals — oc- 
curs, indeed,  as  might  be  expected,  after  a  relatively  smaller 
diminution  of  water.  Certain  of  the  lower  animals  furnish 
additional  proofs.  The  fiotif era  may  be  rendered  apparent- 
ly lifeless  by  desiccation,  and  will  yet  revive  if  wetted. 
When  the  African  rivers  which  it  inhabits  are  dried  up,  the 


312  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION. 

Lepidosiren  remains  torpid  in  the  hardened  mud,  until  the 
return  of  the  rainy  season  brings  water.  Humboldt  states 
that  during  the  summer  drought,  the  alligators  of  the  Pam- 
pas lie  buried  in  a  state  of  suspended  animation  beneath  the 
parched  surface,  and  struggle  up  out  of  the  earth  as  soon  as 
it  becomes  humid.  The  history  of  each  organism 

teaches  us  the  same  thing.  The  young  plant,  just  putting 
its  head  above  the  soil,  is  far  more  succulent  than  the  adult 
plant;  and  the  amount  of  transformation  going  on  in  it  is 
relatively  much  greater.  In  that  portion  of  an  egg  which 
displays  the  formative  processes  during  the  early  stages  of 
incubation,  the  changes  of  arrangement  are  more  rapid  than 
those  of  which  an  equal  portion  of  the  body  of  a  hatched 
chick  undergoes.  As  may  be  inferred  from  their  respective 
powers  to  acquire  habits  and  aptitudes,  the  structural  modifi- 
ability  of  a  child  is  greater  than  that  of  an  adult  man;  and 
the  structural  modifiability  of  an  adult  man  is  greater  than 
that  of  an  old  man :  contrasts  which  are  accompanied  by  cor- 
responding contrasts  in  the  densities  of  the  tissues;  since  the 
ratio  of  water  to  solid  matter  diminishes  with  advancing 
age.  And  then  we  have  this  relation  repeated  in 

the  contrasts  between  parts  of  the  same  organism.  In  a 
tree,  rapid  structural  changes  go  on  at  the  ends  of  shoots, 
where  the  ratio  of  water  to  solid  matter  is  very  great;  while 
the  changes  are  very  slow  in  the  dense  and  almost  dry  sub- 
stance of  the  trunk.  Similarly  in  animals,  we  have  the  con- 
trast between  the  high  rate  of  change  going  on  in  a  soft 
tissue  like  the  brain,  and  the  low  rate  of  change  going  on 
in  dry  non-vascular  tissues,  such  as  those  which  form  hairs, 
nails,  horns,  etc. 

Other  groups  of  facts  prove,  in  an  equally  unmistake- 
able  way,  that  the  quantity  of  secondary  re-distribution  in 
an  organism  varies;  cceter  is  paribus,  according  to  the  con- 
tained quantity  of  the  motion  we  call  heat.  The  contrasts 
between  different  organisms,  and  different  states  of  the 
same  organism,  unite  in  showing  this.  Speaking 


SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLUTION.       •       313 

generally,  the  amounts  of  structure  and  rates  of  structural 
change,  are  smaller  throughout  the  vegetal  kingdom  than 
throughout  the  animal  kingdom;  and,  speaking  generally, 
the  heat  of  plants  is  less  than  the  heat  of  animals.  A  com- 
parison of  the  several  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom  with 
one  another,  discloses  among  them  parallel  relations.  Re- 
garded as  a  whole,  vertebrate  animals  are  higher  in  tempera- 
ture than  invertebrate  ones;  and  they  are  as  a  whole  higher 
in  organic  activity  and  complexity.  Between  subdivisions 
of  the  vertebrata  themselves,  like  differences  in  the  state  of 
molecular  vibration,  accompany  like  differences  in  the  de- 
gree of  evolution.  The  least  compounded  of  the  Yertebrata 
are  the  fishes;  and  in  most  cases,  the  heat  of  fishes  is  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  the  water  in  which  they  swim:  only 
some  of  them  being  decidedly  warmer.  Though  we  habit- 
ually speak  of  reptiles  as  cold-blooded;  and  though  they 
have  not  much  more  power  than  fishes  of  maintaining  a  tem- 
perature above  that  of  their  medium ;  yet  since  their  medium 
(which  is,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  air  of  warm  climates) 
is  on  the  average  warmer  than  the  medium  inhabited  by 
fishes,  the  temperature  of  the  class  of  reptiles  is  higher  than 
that  of  the  class  of  fishes ;  and  we  see  in  them  a  correspond- 
ingly higher  complexity.  The  much  more  active  molecular 
agitation  in  mammals  and  birds,  is  associated  with  a  consid- 
erably greater  multiformity  of  structure  and  a  very  far 
greater  vivacity.  The  most  instructive  contrasts, 

however,  are  those  occurring  in  the  same  organic  aggregates 
at  different  temperatures.  Plants  exhibit  structural  changes 
that  vary  in  rate  as  the  temperature  varies.  Though  light 
is  the  agent  which  effects  those  molecular  changes  causing 
vegetal  growth,  yet  we  see  that  in  the  absence  of  heat,  such 
changes  are  not  effected:  in  winter  there  is  enough  light, 
but  the  heat  being  insufficient,  plant-life  is  suspended. 
That  this  is  the  sole  cause  of  the  suspension,  is  proved  by 
the  fact  that  at  the  same  season,  plants  contained  in  hot- 
houses, where  they  receive  even  a  smaller  amount  of  light, 
22 


314  SIMPLE   AND   COMPOUND   EVOLUTION. 

go  on  producing  leaves  and  flowers.  We  see,  too,  that  their 
seeds,  to  which  light  is  not  simply  needless  but  detrimental, 
begin  to  germinate  only  when  the  return  of  a  warm  season 
raises  the  rate  of  molecular  agitation.  In  like  manner  the 
ova  of  animals,  undergoing  those  changes  by  which  struc- 
ture is  produced  in  them,  must  be  kept  more  or  less  warm: 
in  the  absence  of  a  certain  amount  of  motion  among  their 
molecules,  the  re-arrangement  of  parts  does  not  go  on. 
Ilybernating  animals  also  supply  proof  that  loss  of  heat  car- 
ried far,  retards  extremely  the  processes  of  transformation. 
In  animals  which  do  not  hybernate,  as  in  man,  prolonged 
exposure  to  intense  cold  produces  an  irresistible  tendency  to 
sleep  (which  implies  a  lowered  rate  of  structural  and  func- 
tional changes);  and  if  the  abstraction  of  heat  continues, 
this  sleep  ends  in  death,  or  stoppage  of  these  changes. 

Here,  then,  is  an  accumulation  of  proofs,  general  and 
special.  Living  aggregates  are  distinguished  by  the  con- 
nected facts,  that  during  integration  they  undergo  very 
remarkable  secondary  changes  which  other  aggregates  do 
not  undergo  to  any  considerable  extent;  and  that  they  con- 
tain (bulks  being  supposed  equal)  immensely  greater  quan- 
tities of  motion,  locked  up  in  various  ways. 

§  105.  The  last  chapter  closed  with  the  remark  that 
while  Evolution  is  always  an  integration  of  Matter  and  dis- 
sipation of  Motion,  it  is  in  most  cases  much  more.  And 
this  chapter  opened  by  briefly  specifying  the  conditions 
under  which  Evolution  is  integrative  only,  or  remains 
simple,  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  something 
further  than  integrative,  or  becomes  compound.  In  illus- 
trating this  contrast  between  simple  and  compound  Evolu- 
tion, and  in  explaining  how  the  contrast  arises,  a  vague 
idea  of  Evolution  in  general  has  been  conveyed.  Unavoid- 
ably, we  have  to  some  extent  forestalled  the  full  discussion 
of  Evolution  about  to  be  commenced. 

There  is  nothing  in  this  to  regret.     A  preliminary  con- 


SIMPLE  AND   COMPOUND  EVOLUTION.  31 5 

ception,  indefinite  but  comprehensive,  is  always  useful  as  an 
introduction  to  a  complete  conception — cannot,  indeed,  be 
dispensed  with.  A  complex  idea  is  not  communicable 
directly,  by  giving  one  after  another  its  component  parts 
in  their  finished  forms;  since  if  no  outline  pre-exists  in 
the  mind  of  the  recipient,  these  component  parts  will  not 
be  rightly  combined.  The  intended  combination  can  be 
made  only  when  the  recipient  has  discovered  for  himself 
how  the  components  are  to  be  arranged.  Much  labour  has 
to  be  gone  through  which  would  have  been  saved  had  a 
general  notion,  however  cloudy,  been  conveyed  before  the 
distinct  and  detailed  delineation  was  commenced. 

That  which  the  reader  has  incidentally  gathered  respect- 
ing the  nature  of  Evolution  from  the  foregoing  sections,  he 
may  thus  advantageously  use  as  a  rude  sketch,  enabling  him 
to  seize  the  relations  among  the  several  parts  of  the  en- 
larged picture  as  they  are  worked  out  before  him.  He  will 
constantly  bear  in  mind  that  the  total  history  of  every  sen- 
sible existence  is  included  in  its  Evolution  and  Dissolution; 
which  last  process  we  leave  for  the  present  out  of  considera- 
tion. He  will  remember  that  whatever  aspect  of  it  we  are 
for  the  moment  considering,  Evolution  is  always  to  be  re- 
garded as  fundamentally  an  integration  of  Matter  and  dis- 
sipation of  Motion,  which  may  be,  and  usually  is,  accom- 
panied incidentally  by  other  transformations  of  Matter  and 
Motion.  And  he  will  everywhere  expect  to  find  that  the 
primary  re-distribution  ends  in  forming  aggregates  which 
are  simple  where  it  is  rapid,  but  which  become  compound  in 
proportion  as  its  slowness  allows  the  effects  of  secondary 
re-distributions  to  accumulate. 

§  106.  There  is  much  difficulty  in  tracing  out  trans- 
formations so  vast,  so  varied,  and  so  intricate  as  those  now 
to  be  entered  upon.  Besides  having  to  deal  with  concrete 
phenomena  of  all  orders,  we  have  to  deal  with  each  group 
of  phenomena  under  several  aspects,  no  one  of  which  can  be 


316  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  EVOLVTION. 

fully  understood  apart  from  the  rest  and  no  one  of  which 
can  be  studied  simultaneously  with  the  rest.  Already  we 
have  seen  that  during  Evolution  two  great  classes  of  changes 
are  going  on  together;  and  we  shall  presently  see  that  the 
second  of  these  great  classes  is  re-divisible.  Entangled  with 
one  another  as  all  these  changes  are,  explanation  of  any  one 
class  or  order  involves  direct  or  indirect  reference  to  others 
not  yet  explained.  We  have  nothing  for  it  but  to  make  the 
best  practicable  compromise. 

It  will  be  most  convenient  to  devote  the  next  chapter  to 
a  detailed  account  of  Evolution  under  its  primary  aspect; 
tacitly  recognizing  its  secondary  aspects  only  so  far  as  the 
exposition  necessitates. 

The  succeeding  two  chapters,  occupied  exclusively  with 
the  secondary  re-distributions,  will  make  no  reference  to  the 
primary  re-distribution  beyond  that  which  is  unavoidable: 
each  being  also  limited  to  one  particular  trait  of  the  sec- 
ondary re-distributions. 

In  a  further  chapter  will  be  treated  a  third,  and  still 
more  distinct,  character  of  the  secondary  re-distributions. 


CHAPTEE  XIV. 

THE    LAW    OF    EVOLUTION. 

§  107.  Deduction  has  now  to  be  verified  by  induction. 
Thus  far  the  argument  has  been  that  all  sensible  existences 
must,  in  some  way  or  other  and  at  some  time  or  other,  reach 
their  concrete  shapes  through  processes  of  concentration; 
and  such  facts  as  have  been  named  have  been  named  merely 
to  clarify  the  perception  of  this  necessity.  But  we  cannot 
be  said  to  have  arrived  at  that  unified  knowledge  consti- 
tuting Philosophy,  until  we  have  seen  how  existences  of  all 
orders  do  exhibit  a  progressive  integration  of  Matter  and 
concomitant  loss  of  Motion.  Tracing,  so  far  as  we  may  by 
observation  and  inference,  the  objects  dealt  with  by  the 
Astronomer  and  the  Geologist,  as  well  as  those  which  Biolo- 
gy, Psychology  and  Sociology  treat  of,  we  have  to  consider 
what  direct  proof  there  is  that  the  Cosmos,  in  general  and 
in  detail,  conforms  to  this  law. 

In  doing  this,  manifestations  of  the  law  more  involved 
than  those  hitherto  indicated,  will  chiefly  occupy  us. 
Throughout  the  classes  of  facts  successively  contemplated, 
our  attention  will  be  directed  not  so  much  to  the  truth  that 
every  aggregate  has  undergone,  or  is  undergoing,  inte- 
gration, as  to  the  further  truth  that  in  every  more  or  less 
separate  part  of  every  aggregate,  integration  has  been, 
or  is,  in  progress.  Instead  of  simple  wholes  and  wholes 
of  which  the  complexity  has  been  ignored,  we  have  here  to 

deal  with  wholes  as  they  actually  exist — mostly  made  up 

317 


318.  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION. 

of  many  members  combined  in  many  ways.  And  in  them 
we  shall  have  to  trace  the  transformation  as  displayed  under 
several  forms — a  passage  of  the  total  mass  from  a  more  dif- 
fused to  a  more  consolidated  state;  a  concurrent  similar 
passage  in  every  portion  of  it  that  comes  to  have  a  distin- 
guishable individuality;  and  a  simultaneous  increase  of 
combination  among  such  individuated  portions. 

§  108.  Our  Sidereal  System  by  its  general  form,  by  its 
clusters  of  stars  of  all  degrees  of  closeness,  and  by  its 
nebulas  in  all  stages  of  condensation,  gives  us  grounds  to 
suspect  that,  generally  and  locally,  concentration  is  going 
on.  Assume  that  its  matter  has  been,  and  still  is  being, 
drawn  together  by  gravitation,  and  we  have  an  explanation 
of  all  its  leading  traits  of  structure — from  its  solidified 
masses  up  to  its  collections  of  attenuated  flocculi  barely 
discernible  by  the  most  powerful  telescopes,  from  its  double 
stars  up  to  such  complex  aggregates  as  the  nubecula?. 
Without  dwelling  on  this  evidence,  however,  let  us  pass  to 
the  case  of  the  Solar  System. 

The  belief,  for  which  there  are  so  many  reasons,  that  this 
has  had  a  nebular  genesis,  is  the  belief  that  it  has  arisen  by 
the  integration  of  matter  and  concomitant  loss  of  motion. 
Evolution,  under  its  primary  aspect,  is  illustrated  most  sim- 
ply and  clearly  by  this  passage  of  the  Solar  System  from 
a  widely  diffused  incoherent  state  to  a  consolidated  coherent 
state.  "While,  according  to  the  nebular  hypothesis, 

there  has  been  going  on  this  gradual  concentration  of  the 
Solar  System  as  an  aggregate,  there  has  been  a  simultane- 
ous concentration  of  each  partially-independent  member. 
The  substance  of  every  planet  in  passing  through  its  stages 
of  nebulous  ring,  gaseous  spheroid,  liquid  spheroid,  and 
spheroid  externally  solidified,  has  in  essentials  paralleled  the 
changes  gone  through  by  the  general  mass;  and  every 
satellite  has  done  the  like.  Moreover,  at  the  same 

time  that  the  matter  of  the  whole,  as  well  as  the  matter  of 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION.  319 

each  partially-independent  part,  has  been  thus  integrating, 
there  has  been  the  further  integration  implied  by  increas- 
ing combination  among  the  parts.  The  satellites  of  each 
planet  are  linked  with  their  primary  into  a  balanced  cluster; 
while  the  planets  and  their  satellites  form  with  the  Sun,  a 
compound  group  of  which  the  members  are  more  strongly 
bound  up  with  one  another  than  were  the  far-spread  por- 
tions of  the  nebulous  medium  out  of  which  they  arose. 

Even  apart  from  the  nebular  hypothesis,  the  Solar  Sys- 
tem furnishes  evidence  having  a  like  general  meaning.  Not 
to  make  much  of  the  meteoric  matter  perpetually  being 
added  to  the  mass  of  the  Earth,  and  probably  to  the  masses  of 
other  planets,  as  well  as,  in  larger  quantities,  to  the  mass  of 
the  Sun,  it  will  suffice  to  name  two  generally-admitted 
instances.  The  one  is  the  appreciable  retardation  of  comets 
by  the  ethereal  medium,  and  the  inferred  retardation  of 
planets — a  process  which,  in  time,  must  bring  comets,  and 
eventually  planets,  into  the  Sun.  The  other  is  the  Sun's 
still-continued  loss  of  motion  in  the  shape  of  radiated  heat; 
accompanying  the  still-continued  integration  of  his  mass. 

§  109.  To  geologic  evolution  we  pass  without  break 
from  the  evolution  which,  for  convenience,  we  separate  as 
astronomic.  The  history  of  the  Earth,  as  traced  out  from 
the  structure  of  its  crust,  carries  us  back  to  that  molten  state 
which  the  nebular  hypothesis  implies ;  and,  as  before  pointed 
out  (§  69),  the  changes  classed  as  igneous  are  the  accom- 
paniments of  the  progressing  consolidation  of  the  Earth's 
substance  and  accompanying  loss  of  its  contained  motion. 
Both  the  general  and  the  local  effects  may  be  briefly  exem- 
plified. • 

Leaving  behind  the  period  when  the  more  volatile  ele- 
ments now  existing  as  solids  wTere  kept  by  the  high  tem- 
perature in  a  gaseous  form,  we  may  begin  with  the  fact, 
that  until  the  Earth's  surface  had  cooled  down  below  212°, 
the  vast  mass  of  water  at  present  covering  three-fifths  of  it, 


320  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION. 

must  have  existed  as  vapour.  This  enormous  volume  of 
disintegrated  liquid  became  integrated  as  fast  as  the  dissi- 
jDation  of  the  Earth's  contained  motion  allowed;  leaving,  at 
length,  a  comparatively  small  portion  unintegrated,  which 
would  be  far  smaller  but  for  the  unceasing  absorption  of 
molecular  motion  from  the  Sun.  In  the  formation 

of  the  Earth's  crust  we  have  a  similar  change  similarly 
caused.  The  passage  from  a  thin  solid  film,  everywhere 
fissured  and  moveable  on  the  subjacent  molten  matter,  to  a 
crust  so  thick  and  strong  as  to  be  but  now  and  then  very 
slightly  dislocated  by  disturbing  forces,  illustrates  the  pro- 
cess. And  while,  in  this  superficial  solidification,  we  see 
under  one  form  how  concentration  accompanies  loss  of  con- 
tained motion,  we  see  it  under  another  form  in  that  diminu- 
tion of  the  Earth's  bulk  implied  by  superficial  corrugation. 

Local  or  secondary  integrations  have  advanced  along 
with  this  general  integration.  A  molten  spheroid  merely 
skinned  over  with  solid  matter,  could  have  presented  noth- 
ing beyond  small  patches  of  land  and  water.  Differences  of 
elevation  great  enough  to  form  islands  of  considerable  size, 
imply  a  crust  of  some  rigidity;  and  only  as  the  crust  grew 
thick  could  the  land  be  united  into  continents  divided  by 
oceans.  So,  too,  with  the  more  striking  elevations.  The 
collapse  of  a  thin  crust  round  its  cooling  and  contracting 
contents,  would  throw  it  into  low  ridges:  it  must  have 
acquired  a  relatively  great  depth  and  strength  before  ex- 
tensive mountain  systems  of  vast  elevation  became  pos- 
sible. In  sedimentary  changes,  also,  a  like  pro- 
gress is  inferable.  Denudation  acting  on  the  small  surfaces 
exposed  during  early  stages,  would  produce  but  small  local 
deposits.  The  collection  of  detritus  into  strata  of  great 
extent,  and  the  union  of  such  strata  into  extensive  "  sys- 
tems," imply  wide  surfaces  of  land  and  water,  as  well 
as  subsidences  great,  in  both  area  and  depth;  whence  it 
follows  that  integrations  of  this  order  must  have  grown 
more  pronounced  as  the  Earth's  crust  thickened. 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION.  321 

§  110.  Already  we  have  recognized  the  fact  that  or- 
ganic evolution  is  primarily  the  formation  of  an  aggre- 
gate, by  the  continued  incorporation  of  matter  previously 
spread  through  a  wider  space.  Merely  reminding  the 
reader  that  every  plant  grows  by  concentrating  in  itself 
elements  that  were  before  diffused  as  gases,  and  that  every 
animal  grows  by  re-concentrating  these  elements  previously 
dispersed  in  surrounding  plants  and  animals;  it  will  be 
here  proper  to  complete  the  conception  by  pointing  out  that 
the  early  history  of  a  plant  or  animal,  still  more  clearly  than 
its  later  history,  shows  us  this  fundamental  process.  For  the 
microscopic  germ  of  each  organism  undergoes,  for  a  long 
time,  no  other  change  than  that  implied  by  absorption  of 
nutriment.  •  Cells  imbedded  in  the  stroma  of  an  ovarium, 
become  ova  by  little  else  than  continued  growth  at  the 
expense  of  adjacent  materials.  And  when,  after  fertiliza- 
tion, a  more  active  evolution  commences,  its  most  conspicu- 
ous trait  is  the  drawing-in,  to  a  germinal  centre,  of  the  sub- 
stance which  the  ovum  contains. 

Here,  however,  our  attention  must  be  directed  mainly  to 
the  secondary  integrations  which  habitually  acompany  the 
primary  integration.  We  have  to  observe  how,  along  with 
the  formation  of  a  larger  mass  of  matter,  there  goes  on  a 
drawing  together  and  consolidation  of  the  matter  into 
parts,  as  well  as  an  increasingly-intimate  combination  of 
parts.  In  the  mammalian  embryo,  the  heart,  at 

first  a  long  pulsating  blood-vessel,  by  and  by  twists  upon 
itself  and  integrates.  The  bile-cells  constituting  the  rudi- 
mentary liver,  do  not  simply  become  different  from  the  wall 
of  the  intestine  in  which  they  at  first  lie;  but,  as  they  accu- 
mulate, they  simultaneously  diverge  from  it  and  consolidate 
into  an  organ.  The  anterior  segments  of  the  cerebro-spinal 
axis,  which  are  at  first  continuous  with  the  rest,  and  distin- 
guished only  by  their  larger  size,  undergo  a  gradual  union; 
and  at  the  same  time  the  resulting  head  folds  into  a  mass 
clearlv  marked  off  from  the  rest  of  the  vertebral  column. 


322  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION'. 

The  like  process,  variously  exemplified  in  other  organs,  is 
meanwhile  exhibited  by  the  body  as  a  whole;  which 
becomes  integrated  somewhat  in  the  same  way  that 
an  outspread  handkerchief  and  its  contents  become  in- 
tegrated when  its  edges  are  drawn  in  and  fastened  to  make 
a  bundle.  Analogous  changes  go  on  long  after 

birth,  and  continue  even  np  to  old  age.  In  man,  that  solidi- 
fication of  the  bony  framework  which,  during  childhood,  is 
seen  in  the  coalescence  of  portions  of  the  same  bone  ossified 
from  different  centres,  is  afterwards  seen  in  the  coalescence 
of  bones  that  were  originally  distinct.  The  appendages  of 
the  vertebrae  unite  with  the  vertebral  centres  to  which  they 
belong — a  change  not  completed  until  towards  thirty.  At 
the  same  time  the  epiphyses,  formed  separately  from  the 
main  bodies  of  their  respective  bones,  have  their  cartilagi- 
nous connexions  turned  into  osseous  ones — are  fused  to  the 
masses  beneath  them.  The  component  vertebrae  of  the 
sacrum,  which  remain  separate  till  about  the  sixteenth  year, 
then  begin  to  unite;  and  in  ten  or  a  dozen  years  more  their 
union  is  complete.  Still  later  occurs  the  coalescence  of  the 
coccygeal  vertebrae;  and  there  are  some  other  bony  unions 
which  remain  unfinished  unless  advanced  age  is  reached. 
To  which  add  that  the  increase  of  density  and  toughness, 
going  on  throughout  the  tissues  in  general  during  life,  is  the 
formation  of  a  more  highly  integrated  substance. 

The  species  of  change  thus  illustrated  under  several 
aspects  in  the  unfolding  human  body,  may  be  traced  in  all 
animals.  That  mode  of  it  which  consists  in  the  union  of 
similar  parts  originally  separate,  has  been  described  by 
Milne-Edwards  and  others,  as  exhibited  in  various  of  the 
Invertebrata  /  though  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  in- 
cluded by  them  as  an  essential  peculiarity  in  the  process  of 
organic  development.  We  shall,  however,  see  clearly  that 
local  integration  is  an  all-important  part  of  this  process, 
when  we  find  it  displayed  not  only  in  the  successive  stages 
passed  through  by  every  embryo,  but  also  in  ascending  from 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTIOX.  323 

the  lower  creatures  to  the  higher.  As  manifested  in  either 
way,  it  goes  on  both  longitudinally  and  transversely :  under 
which  different  forms  we  may,  indeed,  most  conveniently 
consider  it.  Of  longitudinal  integration,  the  sub- 

kingdom  Annulosa  supplies  abundant  examples.  Its  lower 
members,  such  as  worms  and  myriapods,  are  mostly  char- 
acterized by  the  great  number  of  segments  composing 
them;  reaching  in  some  cases  to  several  hundreds.  But  in 
the  higher  divisions — crustaceans,  insects,  and  spiders — we 
find  this  number  reduced  down  to  twenty-two,  thirteen,  or 
even  fewer;  while,  acompanying  the  reduction,  there  is  a 
shortening  or  integration  of  the  whole  body,  reaching  its 
extreme  in  the  crab  and  the  spider.  The  significance  of 
these  contrasts,  as  bearing  on  the  general  doctrine  of 
Evolution,  will  be  seen  when  it  is  pointed  out  that  they  are 
parallel  to  those  which  arise  during  the  development  of 
individual  annulose  animals.  In  the  lobster,  the  head  and 
thorax  form  one  compact  box,  made  by  the  union  of  a  num- 
ber of  segments  which  in  the  embryo  were  separable.  Simi- 
larly, the  butterfly  shows  us  segments  so  much  more  closely 
united  than  they  were  in  the  caterpillar,  as  to  be,  some  of 
them,  no  longer  distinguishable  from  one  another.  The 
Vertebrata  again,  throughout  their  successively  higher 
classes,  furnish  like  instances  of  longitudinal  union.  In 
most  fishes,  and  in  reptiles  that  have  no  limbs,  none  of  the 
vertebra*  coalesce.  In  most  mammals  and  in  birds,  a  varia- 
ble number  of  vertebrae  become  fused  together  to  form  the 
sacrum ;  and  in  the  higher  apes  and  in  man,  the  caudal  verte- 
bra? also  lose  their  separate  individualities  in  a  single  os 
coccygis.  That  which  we  may  distinguish  as  trans- 

verse integration,  is  well  illustrated  among  the  Annulosa  in 
the  development  of  the  nervous  system.  Leaving  out  those 
most  degraded  forms  which  do  not  present  distinct  ganglia, 
it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  lower  annulose  animals,  in  com- 
mon with  the  larva  of  the  higher,  are  severally  character- 
ized by  a  double  chain  of  ganglia  running  from  end  to  end 


32±  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION. 

of  the  body;  while  in  the  more  perfectly-formed  annulose 
animals,  this  double  chain  becomes  united  into  a  single 
chain.  Mr.  Xewport  has  described  the  course  of  this  con- 
centration as  exhibited  in  insects;  and  by  Rathke  it  has  been 
traced  in  crustaceans.  During  the  early  stages  of  the  ^4,9- 
tacusfluviatilis,  or  common  cray-fish,  there  is  a  pair  of  sepa- 
rate ganglia  to  each  ring.  Of  the  fourteen  pairs  belonging 
to  the  head  and  thorax,  the  three  pairs  in  advance  of  the 
mouth  consolidate  into  one  mass  to  form  the  brain,  or  ce- 
phalic ganglion.  Meanwhile,  out  of  the  remainder,  the  first 
six  pairs  severally  unite  in  the  median  line,  while  the 
rest  remain  more  or  less  separate.  Of  these  six  double 
ganglia  thus  formed,  the  anterior  four  coalesce  into  one 
mass;  the  remaining  two  coalesce  into  another  mass;  and 
then  these  two  masses  coalesce  into  one.  Here  we  see  longi- 
tudinal and  transverse  integration  going  on  simultaneously; 
and  in  the  highest  crustaceans  they  are  both  carried  still  fur- 
ther. The  Vertebrata  clearly  exhibit  transverse  integration 
in  the  development  of  the  generative  system.  The  lowest 
mammals — the  Monotremata — in  common  with  birds,  to 
which  they  are  in  many  respects  allied,  have  oviducts  which 
towards  their  lower  extremities  are  dilated  into  cavities, 
severally  performing  in  an  imperfect  way  the  function  of  a 
uterus.  "  In  the  Marsxijnalia  there  is  a  closer  approximation 
of  the  two  lateral  sets  of  organs  on  the  median  line ;  for  the 
oviducts  converge  towards  one  another  and  meet  (without 
coalescing)  on  the  median  line;  so  that  their  uterine  dilata- 
tions are  in  contact  with  each  other,  forming  a  true  '  double 
uterus.'  ...  As  we  ascend  the  series  of  '  placental '  mam- 
mals, we  find  the  lateral  coalescence  becoming  more  and 
more  complete.  ...  In  many  of  the  Rodentia  the  uterus 
still  remains  completely  divided  into  two  lateral  halves; 
whilst  in  others  these  coalesce  at  their  lower  portions,  form- 
ing a  rudiment  of  the  true  '  body  '  of  the  uterus  in  the 
human  subject.  This  part  increases  at  the  expense  of  the 
lateral  '  cornua  '  in  the  higher  herbivora  and  carnivora ;  but 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION.  325 

even  in  the  lower  quadrumana  the  uterus  is  somewhat  cleft 
at  its  summit."  * 

Under  the  head  of  organic  integrations,  there  remain  to 
be  noted  some  which  do  not  occur  within  the  limits  of  one 
organism,  and  which  only  in  an  indirect  way  involve  con- 
centration of  matter  and  dissipation  of  motion.  These  are 
the  integration  by  which  organisms  are  made  dependent  on 
one  another.  We  may  set  down  two  kinds  of  them — those 
which  occur  within  the  same  species,  and  those  which  occur 
among  different  species.  More  or  less  of  the  gre- 

garious tendency  is  general  in  animals;  and  when  it  is 
marked,  there  is,  in  addition  to  simple  aggregation,  a  certain 
degree  of  combination.  Creatures  that  hunt  in  packs,  or 
that  have  sentinels,  or  that  are  governed  by  leaders,  form 
bodies  partially  united  by  co-operation.  Among  polyga- 
mous mammals  and  birds  this  mutual  dependence  is  closer; 
and  the  social  insects  show  us  assemblages  of  individuals  of 
a  still  more  consolidated  character:  some  of  them  having 
carried  the  consolidation  so  far  that  the  individuals  cannot 
exist  if  separated.  How  organisms  in  general  are 

mutually  dependent,  and  in  that  sense  integrated,  we  shall 
see  on  remembering — first,  that  while  all  animals  live 
directly  or  indirectly  on  plants,  plants  live  on  the  carbonic 
acid  excreted  by  animals;  second,  that  among  animals  the 
flesh-eaters  cannot  exist  without  the  plant-eaters;  third, 
that  a  large  proportion  of  plants  can  continue  their  respec- 
tive races  only  by  the  help  of  insects,  and  that  in  many 
cases  particular  plants  need  particular  insects.  Without 
detailing  the  more  complex  connexions,  which  Mr.  Darwin 
has  so  beautifully  illustrated,  it  will  suffice  to  say  that  the 
Flora  and  Fauna  in  each  habitat,  constitute  an  aggregate 
so  far  integrated  that  many  of  its  species'  die  out  if  placed 
amid  the  plants  and  animals  of  another  habitat.  And  it 
is  to  be  .remarked  that  this  integration,  too,  increases  as 
organic  evolution  progresses. 

*  Carpenter's  Prin.  of  Comp.  Phys.,  p.  617. 


326  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION". 

§  111.  The  phenomena  set  down  in  the  foregoing  para- 
graph are  introductory  to  others  of  a  higher  order,  with 
which  they  ought,  perhaps,  in  strictness,  to  be  grouped — 
phenomena  which,  for  want  of  a  better  word,  we  may  term 
super-organic.  Inorganic  bodies  present  us  with  certain 
facts.  Certain  other  facts,  mostly  of  a  more  involved  kind, 
are  presented  by  organic  bodies.  There  remain  yet  further 
facts,  not  presented  by  any  organic  body  taken  singly;  but 
which  result  from  the  actions  of  aggregated  organic  bodies 
on  one  another  and  on  inorganic  bodies.  Though  phenom- 
ena of  this  order  are,  as  we  see,  foreshadowed  among  in- 
ferior organisms,  they  become  so  extremely  conspicuous  in 
mankind  as  socially  united,  that  practically  we  may  consider 
them  to  commence  here. 

In  the  social  organism  integrative  changes  are  clearly 
and  abundantly  exemplified.  Uncivilized  societies  display 
them  when  wandering  families,  such  as  we  see  among  Bush- 
men, join  into  tribes  of  considerable  numbers.  A  further 
progress  of  like  nature  is  everywhere  manifested  in  the  sub- 
jugation of  weaker  tribes  by  stronger  ones;  and  in  the  sub- 
ordination of  their  respective  chiefs  to  the  conquering  chief. 
The  combinations  thus  resulting,  which,  among  aboriginal 
races,  are  being  continually  formed  and  continually  broken 
up,  become,  among  superior  races,  relatively  permanent.  If 
we  trace  the  stages  through  which  our  own  society,  or  any 
adjacent  one,  has  passed,  we  see  this  unification  from  time 
to  time  repeated  on  a  larger  scale  and  gaining  in  stability. 
The  aggregation  of  juniors  and  the  children  of  juniors 
under  elders  and  the  children  of  elders;  the  consequent 
establishment  of  groups  of  vassals  bound  to  their  respective 
nobles;  the  subsequent  subordination  of  groups  of  inferior 
nobles  to  dukes  or  earls;  and  the  still  later  growth  of  the 
kingly  power  over  dukes  and  earls ;  are  so  many  instances  of 
increasing  consolidation.  This  process  through  which  petty 
tenures  are  aggregated  in  feuds,  feuds  into  provinces,  pro- 
vinces into  kingdoms,  and  finally  contiguous  kingdoms  into 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION.  327 

a  single  one,  slowly  completes  itself  by  destroying  the  origi- 
nal lines  of  demarcation.  And  it  may  be  further  remarked 
of  the  European  nations  as  a  whole,  that  in  the  tendency  to 
form  alliances  more  or  less  lasting,  in  the  restraining  influ- 
ences exercised  by  the  several  governments  over  one  an- 
other, in  the  system,  now  becoming  customary,  of  settling 
international  disputes  by  congresses,  as  well  as  in  the  break- 
ing down  of  commercial  barriers  and  the  increasing  facilities 
of  communication,  we  may  trace  the  beginnings  of  a  Euro- 
pean federation — a  still  larger  integration  than  any  now 
established. 

But  it  is  not  only  in  these  external  unions  of  groups  with 
groups,  and  of  the  compound  groups  with  one  another,  that 
the  general  law  is  exemplified.  It  is  exemplified  also  in 
unions  that  take  place  internally,  as  the  groups  become 
more  highly  organized.  There  are  two  orders  of  these, 
which  may  be  broadly  distinguished  as  regulative  and  opera- 
tive. A  civilized  society  is  made  unlike  a  barba- 
rous one  by  the  establishment  of  regulative  classes — gov- 
ernmental, administrative,  military,  ecclesiastical,  legal, 
&c,  which,  while  they  have  their  several  special  bonds  of 
union,  constituting  them  sub-classes,  are  also  held  together 
as  a  general  class  by  a  certain  community  of  privileges, 
of  blood,  of  education,  of  intercourse.  In  some  societies, 
fully  developed  after  their  particular  types,  this  consolida- 
tion into  castes,  and  this  union  among  the  upper  castes  by 
separation  from  the  lower,  eventually  grow  very  de- 
cided: to  be  afterwards  rendered  less  decided,  only  in 
cases  of  social  metamorphosis  caused  by  the  industrial 
regime.  The  integrations  that  accompany  the 
operative  or  industrial  organization,  later  in  origin,  are  not 
merely  of  this  indirect  kind,  but  they  are  also  direct — 
they  show  us  physical  approach.  We  have  integrations 
consequent  on  the  simple  growth  of  adjacent  parts  perform- 
ing like  functions;  as,  for  instance,  the  junction  of  Man- 
chester with  its  calico-weaving  suburbs.     We  have  other 


328  THE  LAW  0F  EVOLUTION. 

integrations  that  arise  when,  out  of  several  places  producing 
a  particular  commodity,  one  monopolizing  more  and  more  of 
the  business,  draws  to  it  masters  and  workers,  and  leaves 
the  other  places  to  dwindle;  as  witness  the  growth  of  the 
Yorkshire  cloth-districts  at  the  expense  of  those  in  the  West 
of  England;  or  the  absorption  by  Staffordshire  of  the  pot- 
tery-manufacture, and  the  consequent  decay  of  the  estab- 
lishments that  once  flourished  at  Derby  and  elsewhere. 
We  have  those  more  special  integrations  that  arise  within 
the  same  city;  whence  result  the  concentration  of  publishers 
in  Paternoster  Row,  of  corn-merchants  about  Mark  Lane,  of 
civil  engineers  in  Great  George  Street,  of  bankers  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  city.  Industrial  combinations  that  consist,  not  in 
the  approximation  or  fusion  of  parts,  but  in  the  establish- 
ment of  common  centres  of  connexion,  are  exhibited  in  the 
Bank  clearing-house  and  the  Railway  clearing-house. 
While  of  yet  another  species  are  those  unions  which  bring 
into  relation,  the  more  or  less  dispersed  citizens  who  are  oc- 
cupied in  like  ways ;  as  traders  are  brought  by  the  Exchange, 
and  as  are  professional  men  by  institutes  like  those  of  Civil 
Engineers,  Architects,  <Szq. 

At  first  sight  these  seem  to  be  the  last  of  our  instances. 
Having  followed  up  the  general  law  to  social  aggregates, 
there  apparently  remain  no  other  aggregates  to  which  it  can 
apply.  This  however  is  not  true.  Among  what  we  have 
above  distinguished  as  super-organic  phenomena,  we  shall 
find  sundry  groups  of  very  remarkable  and  interesting 
illustrations.  Though  evolution  of  the  various  products  of 
human  activities  cannot  be  said  directly  to  exemplify  the 
integration  of  matter  and  dissipation  of  motion,  yet  they 
exemplify  it  indirectly.  For  the  progress  of  Language,  of 
Science,  and  of  the  Arts,  industrial  and  aesthetic,  is  an  ob- 
jective register  of  subjective  changes.  Alterations  of  struc- 
ture in  human  beings,  and  concomitant  alterations  of  struc- 
ture in  aggregates  of  human  beings,  jointly  produce  corre- 
sponding alterations  of  structure  in  all  those  things  which 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION.  329 

humanity  creates.  As  in  the  changed  impress  on  the  wax, 
we  read  a  change  in  the  seal;  so  in  the  integrations  of  ad- 
vancing Language,  Science,  and  Art,  we  see  reflected  cer- 
tain integrations  of  advancing  human  structure,  individual 
and  social.    A  section  must  be  devoted  to  each  group. 

§  112.  Among  uncivilized  races,  the  many-syllabled 
names  used  for  not  uncommon  objects,  as  well  as  the  descrip- 
tive character  of  proper  names,  show  us  that  the  words  used 
for  the  less-familiar  things  are  formed  by  compounding 
the  words  used  for  the  more-familiar  things.  This  process 
of  composition  is  sometimes  found  in  its  incipient  stage — a 
stage  in  which  the  component  words  are  temporarily  united 
to  signify  some  un-named  object,  and,  from  lack  of  frequent 
use,  do  not  permanently  cohere.  But  in  the  majority  of 
inferior  languages,  the  process  of  "  agglutination,"  as  it 
is  called,  has  gone  far  enough  to  produce  considerable  sta- 
bility in  the  compound  words:  there  is  a  manifest  integra- 
tion. How  small  is  the  degree  of  this  integration,  how- 
ever, when  compared  with  that  reached  in  well-developed 
languages,  is  shown  both  by  the  great  length  of  the  com- 
pound words  used  for  things  and  acts  of  constant  occurrence, 
and  by  the  separableness  of  their  elements.  Certain  North- 
American  tongues  illustrate  this  very  well.  In  a  Picaree 
vocabulary  extending  to  fifty  names  of  common  objects, 
which  in  English  are  nearly  all  expressed  by  single  sylla- 
bles, there  is  not  one  monosyllabic  word ;  and  in  the  nearly- 
allied  vocabulary  of  the  Pawnees,  the  names  for  these  same 
common  objects  are  monosyllabic  in  but  two  instances. 
Things  so  familiar  to  these  hunting  tribes  as  dog  and  bow, 
are,  in  the  Pawnee  language,  ashahish  and  teeragish  ;  the 
hand  and  the  eyes  are  respectively  iksheeree  and  keereekoo  ; 
for  day  the  term  is  shakoorooeeshairet,  and  for  devil  it  is 
tsaheekshkakoorakvah  /  while  the  numerals  are  composed 
of  from  two  syllables  up  to  five,  and  in  Picaree  up  to 

seven.  That  the  great  length  of  these  familiar 

23 


330  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION. 

words  implies  a  low  degree  of  development,  and  that  in  the 
formation  of  higher  languages  out  of  lower  there  is  a  pro- 
gressive integration,  which  reduces  the  polysyllables  to  dis- 
syllables and  monosyllables,  is  an  inference  confirmed  by 
the  history  of  our  own  language.  Anglo-Saxon  steorra  has 
been  in  course  of  time  consolidated  into  English  star,  mono, 
into  moon,  and  nama  into  name.  The  transition  through 
the  intermediate  semi-Saxon  is  clearly  traceable.  Simu 
became  in  semi-Saxon  su?ie,  and  in  English  son :  the  final  e 
of  sune  being  an  evanescent  form  of  the  original  u.  The 
change  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  plural,  formed  by  the  dis- 
tinct syllable  as,  to  our  plural  formed  by  the  appended 
consonant  s,  shows  us  the  same  thing :  smithas  in  becom- 
ing smiths,  and  endas  in  becoming  ends,  illustrate  pro- 
gressive coalescence.  So,  too,  does  the  disappearance  of  the 
terminal  an  in  the  infinitive  mood  of  verbs  ;  as  shown  in  the 
transition  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  cuman  to  the  semi-Saxon 
cumme,  and  to  the  English  came.  Moreover  the  process  has 
been  slowly  going  on,  even  since  what  we  distinguish  as  Eng- 
lish was  formed.  In  Elizabeth's  time,  verbs  were  still  very 
frequently  pluralized  by  the  addition  of  en — we  tell  was  we 
tellen;  and  in  some  rural  districts  this  form  of  speech  may 
even  now  be  heard.  In  like  manner  the  terminal  ed  of  the 
past  tense,  has  united  with  the  word  it  modifies.  Burn-ed 
has  in  pronunciation  become  burnt;  and  even  in  writing  the 
terminal  t  has  in  some  cases  taken  the  place  of  the  ed.  Only 
where  antique  forms  in  general  are  adhered  to,  as  in  the 
church-service,  is  the  distinctness  of  this  inflection  still 
maintained.  Further,  we  see  that  the  compound  vowels 
have  been  in  many  cases  fused  into  single  vowels.  That  in 
bread  the  e  and  a  were  originally  both  sounded,  is  proved  by 
the  fact  that  they  are  still  so  sounded  in  parts  where  old  hab- 
its linger.  "We,  however,  have  contracted  the  pronunciation 
into  bred  ;  and  we  have  made  like  changes  in  many  other 
common  words.  Lastly,  let  it  be  noted  that  where  the  fre- 
quency of  repetition  is  greatest,  the  process  is  carried  fur- 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION.  331 

tiiest ;  as  instance  the  contraction  of  lord  (originally  laford) 
into  lud  in  the  mouths  of  Barristers ;  and,  still  better,  the 
coalescence  of  God  be  with  you  into  Good  bye. 

Besides  exhibiting  in  this  way  the  integrative  process, 
Language  equally  exhibits  it  throughout  all  grammatical 
development.  The  lowest  kinds  of  human  speech,  having 
merely  nouns  and  verbs  without  inflections  to  them,  mani- 
festly permit  no  such  close  union  of  the  elements  of  a  propo- 
sition as  results  when  the  relations  are  marked  either  by 
inflections  or  by  connective  words.  Such  speech  is  neces- 
sarily what  we  significantly  call  "  incoherent."  To  a  con- 
siderable extent,  incoherence  is  seen  in  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage. "If,  instead  of  saying  I  go  to  London,  jigs  come 
from  Turkey,  the  sun  shines  through  the  air,  we  said,  /  go 
end  London,  figs  come  origin  Turkey,  the  sun  shines  passage 
air,  we  should  discourse  after  the  manner  of  the  Chinese." 
From  this  "  aptotic  "  form,  there  is  clear  evidence  of  a  tran- 
sition, by  coalescence,  to  a  form  in  which  the  connexions  of 
words  are  expressed  by  the  addition  to  them  of  certain  in- 
flectional words.  "  In  Languages  like  the  Chinese,"  re- 
marks Dr.  Latham,  "  the  separate  words  most  in  use  to  ex- 
press relation  may  become  adjuncts  or  annexes."  To  this 
he  adds  the  fact  that  "  the  numerous  inflexional  languages 
fall  into  two  classes.  In  one,  the  inflexions  have  no  appear- 
ance of  having  been  separate  words.  In  the  other,  their  ori- 
gin as  separate  words  is  demonstrable."  From  which  the 
inference  drawn  is,  that  the  "  aptotic  "  languages,  by  the 
more  and  more  constant  use  of  adjuncts,  gave  rise  to  the 
"  agglutinate  "  languages,  or  those  in  which  the  original 
separateness  of  the  inflexional  parts  can  be  traced;  and  that 
out  of  these,  by  further  use,  arose  the  "  amalgamate  "  lan- 
guages, or  those  in  which  the  original  separateness  of  the  in- 
flexional parts  can  no  longer  be  traced.  Strongly 
corroborative  of  this  inference  is  the  unquestionable  fact, 
that  by  such  a  process  there  have  grown  out  of  the  amalga- 
mate languages,  the  "  anaptotic  "  languages;  of  which  our 


332  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION. 

own  is  the  most  perfect  example — languages  in  which,  by 
further  consolidation,  inflexions  have  almost  disappeared, 
while,  to  express  the  verbal  relations,  certain  new  kinds 
of  words  have  been  developed.  Y\  nen  we  see  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  inflexions  gradually  lost  by  contraction  during  the 
development  of  English,  and,  though  to  a  less  degree,  the 
Latin  inflexions  dwindling  away  during  the  development 
of  French,  we  cannot  deny  that  grammatical  structure  is 
modified  by  integration;  and  seeing  how  clearly  the  earlier 
stages  of  grammatical  structure  are  explained  by  it,  we  can 
scarcely  doubt  that  it  has  been  going  on  from  the  first. 

In  proportion  to  the  degree  of  this  integration,  is  the 
extent  to  which  integration  of  another  order  is  carried. 
Aptotic  languages  are,  as  already  pointed  out,  necessarily 
incoherent — the  elements  of  a  proposition  cannot  be  com- 
pletely tied  into  a  whole.  But  as  fast  as  coalescence  pro- 
duces inflected  words,  it  becomes  possible  to  unite  them 
into  sentences  of  which  the  parts  are  so  mutually  dependent 
that  no  considerable  change  can  be  made  without  destroying 
the  meaning.  Yet  a  further  stage  in  this  process  may  be 
noted.  After  the  development  of  those  grammatical  forms 
which  make  definite  statements  possible,  we  do  not  at  first 
find  them  used  to  express  anything  beyond  statements  of  a 
simple  kind.  A  single  subject  with  a  single  predicate,  ac- 
companied by  but  few  qualifying  terms,  are  usually  all.  If 
we  compare,  for  instance,  the  Hebrew  scriptures  with  writ- 
ings of  modern  times,  a  marked  difference  of  aggregation 
among  the  groups  of  words,  is  visible.  In  the  number  of  sub- 
ordinate propositions  which  accompany  the  principal  one ;  in 
the  various  complements  to  subjects  and  predicates;  and  in 
the  numerous  qualifying  clauses — all  of  them  united  into  one 
complex  whole — many  sentences  in  modern  compositions  ex- 
hibit a  degree  of  integration  not  to  be  found  in  ancient  ones. 

§  113.  The  history  of  Science  presents  facts  of  the  same 
meaning  at  every  step.     Indeed  the  integration  of  groups 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION.  333 

of  like  entities  and  like  relations,  may  be  said  to  constitute 
the  most  conspicuous  part  of  scientiiic  progress.  A  glance 
at  the  classificatory  sciences,  shows  us  that  the  confused 
incoherent  aggregations  which  the  vulgar  make  of  natural 
objects,  are  gradually  rendered  complete  and  compact,  and 
bound  up  into  groups  within  groups.  While,  instead  of 
considering  all  marine  creatures  as  fish,  shell-fish,  and  jelly- 
fish, Zoology  establishes  divisions  and  sub-divisions  under 
the  heads  Vertebrata,Annnlosa,  Mollusca,  &c. ;  and  while, 
in  place  of  the  wide  and  vague  assemblage  popularly  de- 
scribed as  "  creeping  things,"  it  makes  the  specific  classes 
Annelida,  Myriqpoda,  Insecta,  Arachnida  ;  it  simultaneous- 
ly gives  to  these  an  increasing  consolidation.  The  several 
orders  and  genera  of  which  each  consists,  are  arranged  ac- 
cording to  their  affinities  and  tied  together  under  common 
definitions;  at  the  same  time  that,  by  extended  observation 
and  rigorous  criticism,  the  previously  unknown  and  un- 
determined forms  are  integrated  with  their  respective  con- 
geners. Nor  is  the  process  less  clearly  manifested 
in  those  sciences  which  have  for  their  subject-matter,  not 
classified  objects  but  classified  relations.  Under  one  of  its 
chief  aspects,  scientific  advance  is  the  advance  of  generaliza- 
tion; and  generalizing  is  uniting  into  groups  all  like  co- 
existences and  sequences  among  phenomena.  The  colliga- 
tion of  many  concrete  relations  into  a  generalization  of 
the  lowest  order,  exemplifies  this  principle  in  its  simplest 
form;  and  it  is  again  exemplified  in  a  more  complex  form 
by  the  colligation  of  these  lowest  generalizations  into 
higher  ones,  and  these  into  still  higher  ones.  Year  by  year 
are  established  certain  connexions  among  orders  of  phe- 
nomena that  appear  unallied ;  and  these  connexions,  multi- 
plying and  strengthening,  gradually  bring  the  seemingly 
unallied  orders  under  a  common  bond.  When,  for  example, 
Humboldt  quotes  the  saying  of  the  Swiss — "  it  is  going  to 
rain  because  we  hear  the  murmur  of  the  torrents  nearer," — 
when  he  remarks  the  relation  between  this  and  an  observa- 


334  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION. 

tion  of  his  own,  that  the  cataracts  of  the  Orinoco  are  heard 
at  a  greater  distance  by  night  than  by  day — when  he  notes 
the  essential  parallelism  existing  between  these  facts  and 
the  fact  that  the  unusual  visibility  of  remote  objects  is 
also  an  indication  of  coming  rain — and  when  he  points 
out  that  the  common  cause  of  these  variations  is  the  smaller 
hindrance  offered  to  the  passage  of  both  light  and  sound, 
by  media  which  are  comparatively  homogeneous,  either 
in  temperature  or  hygrometric  state;  he  helps  in  bringing 
under  one  generalization  the  phenomena  of  light  and  those 
of  sound.  Experiment  having  shown  that  these  conform 
to  like  laws  of  reflection  and  refraction,  the  conclusion 
that  they  are  both  produced  by  undulations  gains  proba- 
bility: there  is  an  incipient  integration  of  two  great  orders 
of  phenomena,  between  which  no  connexion  was  suspected 
in  times  past.  A  still  more  decided  integration  has  been  of 
late  taking  place  between  the  once  independent  sub-sci- 
ences of  Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Light. 

The  process  will  manifestly  be  carried  much  further. 
Such  propositions  as  those  set  forth  in  preceding  chapters, 
on  "  The  Persistence  of  Force,"  "  The  Transformation  and 
Equivalence  of  Forces,"  "  The  Direction  of  Motion,"  and 
"  The  Rhythm  of  Motion,"  unite  within  single  bonds  phe- 
nomena belonging  to  all  orders  of  existences.  And  if  there 
is  such  a  thing  as  that  which  we  here  understand  by  Phi- 
losophy, there  must  eventually  be  reached  a  universal 
integration. 

§  114.  Xor  do  the  industrial  and  esthetic  Arts  fail  to 
supply  us  with  equally  conclusive  evidence.  The  progress 
from  rude,  small,  and  simple  tools,  to  perfect,  complex,  and 
large  machines,  is  a  progress  in  integration.  Among  what 
are  classed  as  the  mechanical  powers,  the  advance  from  the 
lever  to  the  wheel-and-axle  is  an  advance  from  a  simple 
agent  to  an  agent  made  up  of  several  simple  ones.  On  com- 
paring the  wheel-and-axle,  or  any  of  the  machines  used  in 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION.  335 

early  times  with  those  used  now,  we  see  that  in  each  of  our 
machines  several  of  the  primitive  machines  are  united  into 
one.  A  modern  apparatus  for  spinning  or  weaving,  for 
making  stockings  or  lace,  contains  not  simply  a  lever,  an  in- 
clined plane,  a  screw,  a  wheel-and-axle,  joined  together;  but 
several  of  each  integrated  into  one  whole.  Again,  in  early 
ages,  when  horse-power  and  man-power  were  alone  em- 
ployed, the  motive  agent  was  not  bound  up  with  the  tool 
moved;  but  the  two  have  now  become  in  many  cases  fused 
together.  The  fire-box  and  boiler  of  a  locomotive  are  com- 
bined with  the  machinery  which  the  steam  works.  A  still 
more  extensive  integration  is  exhibited  in  every  factory. 
Here  we  find  a  large  number  of  complicated  machines, 
all  connected  by  driving  shafts  with  the  same  steam-engine 
— all  united  with  it  into  one  vast  apparatus. 

Contrast  the  mural  decorations  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Assyrians  with  modern  historical  paintings,  and  there  be- 
comes manifest  a  great  advance  in  unity  of  composition — 
in  the  subordination  of  the  parts  to  the  whole.  One  of 
these  ancient  frescoes  is,  in  truth,  made  up  of  a  number  of 
pictures  that  have  little  mutual  dependence.  The  several 
figures  of  which  each  group  consists,  show  very  imperfectly 
by  their  attitudes,  and  not  at  all  by  their  expressions,  the 
relations  in  which  they  stand  to  each  other:  the  respective 
groups  might  be  separated  with  but  little  loss  of  meaning; 
and  the  centre  of  chief  interest,  which  should  link  all  parts 
together,  is  often  inconspicuous.  The  same  trait  may  be 
noted  in  the  tapestries  of  medieval  days.  Representing 
perhaps  a  hunting  scene,  one  of  these  contains  men,  horses, 
dogs,  beasts,  birds,  trees,  and  flowers,  miscellaneously  dis- 
persed: the  living  objects  being  variously  occupied,  and 
mostly  with  no  apparent  consciousness  of  each  other's  proxi- 
mity. But  in  the  paintings  since  produced,  faulty  as  many 
of  them  are  in  this  respect,  there  is  always  a  more  or  less 
distinct  co-ordination  of  parts — an  arrangement  of  atti- 
tudes, expressions,  lights,  and  colours,  such  as  to  combine 


336  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION. 

the  picture  into  an  organic  whole;  and  the  success  with 
which  unity  of  effect  is  educed  from  variety  of  components, 
is  a  chief  test  of  merit. 

In  music,  progressive  integration  is  displayed  in  still 
more  numerous  ways.  The  simple  cadence  embracing  but 
a  few  notes,  which  in  the  chants  of  savages  is  monotonously 
repeated,  becomes,  among  civilized  races,  a  long  series  of 
different  musical  phrases  combined  into  one  whole ;  and  so 
complete  is  the  integration,  that  the  melody  cannot  be 
broken  off  in  the  middle,  nor  shorn  of  its  final  note,  without 
giving  us  a  painful  sense  of  incompleteness.  When  to  the 
air,  a  bass,  a  tenor,  and  an  alto  are  added;  and  when  to  the 
harmony  of  different  voice-parts  there  is  added  an  accom- 
paniment ;  we  see  exemplified  integrations  of  another  order, 
which  grow  gradually  more  elaborate.  And  the  process 
is  carried  a  stage  higher  when  these  complex  solos,  con- 
certed pieces,  choruses,  and  orchestral  effects,  are  com- 
bined into  the  vast  ensemble  of  a  musical  drama ;  of  which, 
be  it  remembered,  the  artistic  perfection  largely  consists 
in  the  subordination  of  the  particular  effects  to  the  total 
effect. 

Once  more  the  Arts  of  literary  delineation,  narrative 
and  dramatic,  furnish  us  with  parallel  illustrations.  The 
tales  of  primitive  times,  like  those  with  which  the  story- 
tellers of  the  East  still  daily  amuse  their  listeners,  are  made 
up  of  successive  occurrences  that  are  not  only  in  themselves 
unnatural,  but  have  no  natural  connexion:  they  are  but  so 
many  separate  adventures  put  together  without  necessary 
sequence.  But  in  a  good  modern  work  of  imagination,  the 
events  are  the  proper  products  of  the  characters  working 
under  given  conditions;  and  cannot  at  will  be  changed  in 
their  order  or  kind,  without  injuring  or  destroying  the 
general  effect.  Further,  the  characters  themselves,  which 
in  early  fictions  play  their  respective  parts  without  show- 
ing how  their  minds  are  modified  by  one  another  or  by  the 
events,  are  now  presented  to  us  as  held  together  by  com- 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION.  337 

plex  moral  relations,  and  as  acting  and  re-acting  upon  one 
another's  natures. 

§  115.  Evolution  then,  under  its  primary  aspect,  is  a 
change  from  a  less  coherent  form  to  a  more  coherent  form, 
consequent  on  the  dissipation  of  motion  and  integration 
of  matter.  This  is  the  universal  process  through  which 
sensible  existences,  individually  and  as  a  whole,  pass  during 
the  ascending  halves  of  their  histories.  This  proves  to  be 
a  character  displayed  equally  in  those  earliest  changes  which 
the  Universe  at  large  is  supposed  to  have  undergone,  and  in 
those  latest  changes  which  we  trace  in  society  and  the  pro- 
ducts of  social  life.  And  throughout,  the  unification  pro- 
ceeds in  several  ways  simultaneously. 

Alike  during  the  evolution  of  the  Solar  System,  of  a 
planet,  of  an  organism,  of  a  nation,  there  is  progressive 
aggregation  of  the  entire  mass.  This  may  be  shown  by  the 
increasing  density  of  the  matter  already  contained  in  it;  or 
by  the  drawing  into  it  of  matter  that  was  before  separate; 
or  by  both.  But  in  any  case  it  implies  a  loss  of  relative  mo- 
tion. At  the  same  time,  the  parts  into  which  the 
mass  has  divided,  severally  consolidate  in  like  manner.  We 
see  this  in  the  formation  of  planets  and  satellites  which  has 
gone  on  along  with  the  concentration  of  the  nebula  out  of 
which  the  Solar  System  originated;  we  see  it  in  the  growth 
of  separate  organs  that  advances,  pari  passu,  with  the 
growth  of  each  organism;  we  see  it  in  that  rise  of  special 
industrial  centres  and  special  masses  of  population,  which 
is  associated  with  the  rise  of  each  society.  Always  more 
or  less  of  local  integration  accompanies  the  general  inte- 
gration. And  then,  beyond  the  increased  close- 
ness of  juxta-position  among  the  components  of  the  whole, 
and  among  the  components  of  each  part,  there  is  increased 
closeness  of  combination  among  the  parts,  producing  mutual 
dependence  of  them.  Dimly  foreshadowed  as  this  mutual 
dependence  is  in  inorganic  existences,  both  celestial  and 


338  THE  LAW  0F  EVOLUTION. 

terrestrial,  it  becomes  distinct  in  organic  and  super-organic 
existences.  From  the  lowest  living  forms  upwards,  the 
degree  of  development  is  marked  by  the  degree  in  which  the 
several  parts  constitute  a  co-operative  assemblage.  The 
advance  from  those  creatures  which  live  on  in  each  part 
when  cut  to  pieces,  up  to  those  creatures  which  cannot  lose 
any  considerable  part  without  death,  nor  any  inconsiderable 
part  without  great  constitutional  disturbance,  is  an  advance 
to  creatures  which,  while  more  integrated  in  respect  to 
their  solidification,  are  also  more  integrated  as  consisting  of 
organs  that  live  for  and  by  each  other.  The  like  contrast 
between  undeveloped  and  developed  societies,  need  not  be 
shown  in  detail:  the  ever-increasing  co-ordination  of  parts, 
is  conspicuous  to  all.  And  it  must  suffice  just  to  indicate 
that  the  same  thing  holds  true  of  social  products :  as,  for  in- 
stance, of  Science;  which  has  become  highly  integrated  not 
only  in  the  sense  that  each  division  is  made  up  of  mutually- 
dependent  propositions,  but  in  the  sense  that  the  several 
divisions  are  mutually  dependent — cannot  carry  on  their  re- 
spective investigations  without  aid  from  one  another. 


CHAPTEE  XV. 

THE    LAW    OF    EVOLUTION    CONTINUED. 

§  116.  Changes  great  in  their  amounts  and  various  in 
their  kinds,  which  accompany  those  dealt  with  in  the  last 
chapter,  have  thus  far  been  wholly  ignored — or,  if  tacitly 
recognized,  have  not  been  avowedly  recognized.  Integra- 
tion of  each  whole  has  been  described  as  taking  place  simul- 
taneously with  integration  of  each  of  the  parts  into  which 
the  whole  divides  itself.  But  how  comes  each  whole  to  di- 
vide itself  into  parts  ?  This  is  a  transformation  more  remark- 
able than  the  passage  of  the  whole  from  an  incoherent  to  a 
coherent  state;  and  a  formula  which  says  nothing  about  it 
omits  more  than  half  the  phenomena  to  be  formulated. 

This  larger  half  of  the  phenomena  we  have  now  to  treat. 
In  this  chapter  Ave  are  concerned  with  those  secondary  re- 
distributions of  matter  and  motion  that  go  on  along  with 
the  primary  re-distribution.  We  saw  that  while  in  very 
incoherent  aggregates,  secondary  re-distributions  produce 
but  evanescent  results,  in  aggregates  that  reach  and  main- 
tain a  certain  medium  state,  neither  very  incoherent  nor 
very  coherent,  results  of  a  relatively  persistent  character 
are  produced — structural  modifications.  And  our  next  in- 
quiry must  be — What  is  the  universal  expression  for  these 
structural  modifications? 

Already  an  implied  answer  has  been  given  by  the  title — 
Compound  Evolution.  Already  in  distinguishing  as  simple 
Evolution,  that  integration  of  matter  and  dissipation  of  mo- 


340  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

tion  which  is  unaccompanied  by  secondary  re-distributions, 
it  has  been  tacitly  asserted  that  where  secondary  re-distri- 
butions occur,  complexity  arises.  Obviously  if,  while  there 
has  gone  on  a  transformation  of  the  incoherent  into  the  co- 
herent, there  have  gone  on  other  transformations,  the  mass, 
instead  of  remaining  uniform,  must  have  become  multiform. 
The  proposition  is  an  identical  one.  To  say  that  the  pri- 
mary re-distribution  is  accompanied  by  secondary  re-dis- 
tributions, is  to  say  that  along  with  the  change  from  a 
diffused  to  a  concentrated  state,  there  goes  on  a  change  from 
a  homogeneous  state  to  a  heterogeneous  state.  The  com- 
ponents of  the  mass  while  they  become  integrated  also  be- 
come differentiated.* 

This,  then,  is  the  second  aspect  under  which  we  have  to 
study  Evolution.  As,  in  the  last  chapter,  we  contemplated 
existences  of  all  orders  as  displaying  progressive  integration; 
so,  in  this  chapter,  we  have  to  contemplate  them  as  display- 
ing progressive  differentiation. 

§  117.  A  growing  variety  of  structure  throughout  our 
Sidereal  System,  is  implied  by  the  contrasts  that  indicate  an 
aggregative  process  throughout  it.  We  have  nebulae  that 
are  diffused  and  irregular,  and  others  that  are  spiral,  annu- 
lar, spherical,  &c.  We  have  groups  of  stars  the  members 
of  which  are  scattered,  and  groups  concentrated  in  all 
degrees  down  to  closely-packed  globular  clusters.  We  have 
these  groups  differing  in  the  numbers  of  their  members, 
from  those  containing  several  thousand  stars  to  those  con- 

*  The  terms  here  used  must  be  understood  in  relative  senses.  Since  we 
know  of  no  such  thing  as  absolute  diffusion  or  absolute  concentration,  the 
change  can  never  be  anything  but  a  change  from  a  more  diffused  to  a  less 
diffused  state— from  smaller  coherence  to  greater  coherence ;  and,  similarly, 
as  no  concrete  existences  present  us  with  absolute  simplicity— as  nothing  is 
perfectly  uniform — as  we  nowhere  find  complete  homogeneity — the  transforma- 
tion is  literally  always  towards  greater  complexity,  or  increased  multiformity, 
or  further  heterogeneity.  This  qualification  the  reader  must  habitually  bear 
in  mind. 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  341 

taining  but  two.  Among  individual  stars  there  are  great 
contrasts,  real  as  well  as  apparent,  of  size;  and  from  their 
unlike  colours,  as  well  as  from  their  unlike  spectra,  numer- 
ous contrasts  among  their  physical  states  are  inferable.  Be- 
yond which  heterogeneities  in  detail  there  are  general  hete- 
rogeneities. Nebula?  are  abundant  in  some  regions  of  the 
heavens,  while  in  others  there  are  only  stars.  Here  the 
celestial  spaces  are  almost  void  of  objects;  and  there  we  see 
dense  aggregations,  nebular  and  stellar  together. 

The  matter  of  our  Solar  System  during  its  concentra- 
tion has  become  more  multiform.  The  aggregating  gaseous 
spheroid,  dissipating  its  motion,  acquiring  more  marked  un- 
likenesses  of  density  and  temperature  between  interior  and 
exterior,  and  leaving  behind  from  time  to  time  annular  por- 
tions of  its  mass,  underwent  differentiations  that  increased  in 
number  and  degree,  until  there  was  evolved  the  existing  or- 
ganized group  of  sun,  planets,  and  satellites.  The  hetero- 
geneity of  this  is  variously  displayed.  There  are  the  im- 
mense contrast  between  the  sun  and  the  planets,  in  bulk  and 
in  weight ;  as  well  as  the  subordinate  contrasts  of  like  kind 
between  one  planet  and  another,  and  between  the  planets 
and  their  satellites.  There  is  the  further  contrast  between 
the  sun  and  the  planets  in  respect  of  temperature ;  and  there 
is  reason  to  suppose  that  the  planets  and  satellites  differ 
from  one  another  in  their  proper  heats,  as  well  as  in  the  heats 
which  they  receive  from  the  sun.  Bearing  in  mind  that  they 
also  differ  in  the  inclinations  of  their  orbits,  the  inclinations 
of  their  axes,  in  their  specific  gravities  and  in  their  physical 
constitutions,  we  see  how  decided  is  the  complexity  wrought 
in  the  Solar  System  by  those  secondary  re-distributions  that 
have  accompanied  the  primary  re-distribution. 

§  118.  Passing  from  this  hypothetical  illustration, 
which  must  be  taken  for  what  it  is  worth,  without  prejudice 
to  the  general  argument,  let  us  descend  to  an  order  of  evi- 
dence less  open  to  objection. 


342  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

It  is  now  generally  agreed  among  geologists  that  the 
Earth  was  once  a  mass  of  molten  matter;  and  that  its  inner 
parts  are  still  fluid  and  incandescent.  Originally,  then,  it 
was  comparatively  homogeneous  in  consistence;  and,  be- 
cause of  the  circulation  that  takes  place  in  heated  fluids, 
must  have  been  comparatively  homogeneous  in  temperature. 
It  must,  too,  have  been  surrounded  by  an  atmosphere  con- 
sisting partly  of  the  elements  of  air  and  water,  and  partly  of 
those  various  other  elements  which  assume  gaseous  forms  at 
high  temperatures.  That  cooling  by  radiation  which, 
though  originally  far  more  rapid  than  now,  necessarily  re- 
quired an  immense  time  to  produce  decided  change,  must  at 
length  have  resulted  in  differentiating  the  portion  most  able 
to  part  with  its  heat;  namely,  the  surface.  A  further  cool- 
ing, leading  to  deposition  of  all  solidifiable  elements  con- 
tained in  the  atmosphere,  and  finally  to  precipitation  of  the 
water  and  separation  of  it  from  the  air,  must  thus  have 
caused  a  second  marked  differentiation;  and  as  the  condensa- 
tion must  have  commenced  on  the  coolest  parts  of  the  sur- 
face^— namely,  about  the  poles — there  must  so  have  resulted 
the  first  geographical  distinctions. 

To  these  illustrations  of  growing  heterogeneity,  which, 
though  deduced  from  the  known  laws  of  matter,  may  be  re- 
garded as  hypothetical,  Geology  adds  an  extensive  series 
that  have  been  inductively  established.  The  Earth's  struc- 
ture has  been  age  after  age  further  involved  by  the  multi- 
plication of  the  strata  which  form  its  crust ;  and  it  has  been 
age  after  age  further  involved  by  the  increasing  composi- 
tion of  these  strata,  the  more  recent  of  which,  formed 
from  the  detritus  of  the  more  ancient,  are  many  of  them 
rendered  highly  complex  by  the  mixtures  of  materials  they 
contain.  This  heterogeneity  has  been  vastly  in- 

creased by  the  action  of  the  Earth's  still  molten  nucleus 
on  its  envelope;  whence  have  resulted  not  only  a  great 
variety  of  igneous  rocks,  but  the  tilting  up  of  sedimentary 
strata  at  all  angles,  the  formation  of  faults  and  metallic 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  343 

veins,  the  production  of  endless  dislocations  and  irregulari- 
ties. Again,  geologists  teach  us  that  the  Earth's 
surface  has  been  growing  more  varied  in  elevation — that 
the  most  ancient  mountain  systems  are  the  smallest,  and 
the  Andes  and  Himalayas  the  most  modern;  while,  in  all 
probability,  there  have  been  corresponding  changes  in  the 
bed  of  the  ocean.  As  a  consequence  of  this  ceaseless  mul- 
tiplication of  differences,  we  now  find  that  no  considerable 
portion  of  the  Earth's  exposed  surface,  is  like  any  other 
portion,  either  in  contour,  in  geologic  structure,  or  in 
chemical  composition;  and  that,  in  most  parts,  the  surface 
changes  from  mile  to  mile  in  all  these  characteristics. 

There  has  been  simultaneously  going  on  a  gradual  dif- 
ferentiation of  climates.  As  fast  as  the  Earth  cooled  and 
its  crust  solidified,  inequalities  of  temperature  arose  be- 
tween those  parts  of  its  surface  most  exposed  to  the  sun 
and  those  less  exposed;  and  thus  in  time  there  came  to 
be  the  marked  contrasts,  between  regions  of  perpetual  ice 
and  snow,  regions  where  winter  and  summer  alternately 
reign  for  periods  varying  according  to  the  latitude,  and 
regions  where  summer  follows  summer  with  scarcely 
an  appreciable  variation.  Meanwhile,  elevations 

and  subsidences,  recurring  here  and  there  over  the  Earth's 
crust,  tending  as  they  have  done  to  produce  irregular  dis- 
tribution of  land  and  sea,  have  entailed  various  modifica- 
tions of  climate  beyond  those  dependent  on  latitude;  while 
a  yet  further  series  of  such  modifications  has  been  produced 
by  increasing  differences  of  height  in  the  lands,  which 
have  in  sundry  places  brought  arctic,  temperate,  and  tropi- 
cal climates  to  within  a  few  miles  of  one  another.  The 
general  results  of  these  changes  are,  that  every  extensive 
region  has  its  own  meteorologic  conditions,  and  that  every 
locality  in  each  region  differs  more  or  less  from  others  in 
those  conditions :  as  in  its  structure,  its  contour,  its  soil. . 

Thus,  between  our  existing  Earth,  the  phenomena  of 
whose  varied  crust  neither  geographers,   geologists,  min- 


344:  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

eralogists  nor  meteorologists  have  yet  enumerated,  and  the 
molten  globe  out  of  which  it  was  evolved,  the  contrast  in 
heterogeneity  is  sufficiently  striking. 

§  119.  The  clearest,  most  numerous,  and  most  varied 
illustrations  of  the  advance  in  multiformity  that  accompa- 
nies the  advance  in  integration,  are  furnished  by  living  or- 
ganic bodies.  Distinguished  as  we  found  these  to  be  by  the 
great  quantity  of  their  contained  motion,  they  exhibit  in  an 
extreme  degree  the  secondary  re-distributions  which  con- 
tained motion  facilitates.  The  history  of  every  plant  and 
every  animal,  while  it  is  a  history  of  increasing  bulk,  is  also 
a  history  of  simultaneously-increasing  differences  among  the 
parts.     This  transformation  has  several  aspects. 

The  chemical  composition  which  is  almost  uniform 
throughout  the  substance  of  a  germ,  vegetal  or  animal, 
gradually  ceases  to  be  uniform.  The  several  compounds, 
nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous,  which  were  homogene- 
ously mixed,  segregate  by  degrees,  become  diversely  pro- 
portioned in  diverse  places,  and  produce  new  compounds  by 
transformation  or  modification.  In  plants  the  al- 

buminous and  amylaceous  matters  which  form  the  substance 
of  the  embryo,  give  origin  here  to  a  preponderance  of 
chlorophyll  and  there  to  a  preponderance  of  cellulose.  Over 
the  parts  that  are  becoming  leaf-surfaces,  certain  of  the 
materials  are  metamorphosed  into  wax.  In  this  place  starch 
passes  into  one  of  its  isomeric  equivalents,  sugar;  and  in  that 
place  into  another  of  its  isomeric  equivalents,  gum.  By  sec- 
ondary change  some  of  the  cellulose  is  modified  into  wood; 
whiJe  some  of  it  is  modified  into  the  allied  substance  which, 
in  large  masses,  we  distinguish  as  cork.  And  the  more  nu- 
merous compounds  thus  gradually  arising,  initiate  further 
unlikenesses  by  mingling  in  unlike  ratios.  An  animal- 

ovum,  the  components  of  which  are  at  first  evenly  diffused 
among  one  another,  chemically  transforms  itself  in  like 
manner.    Its  protein,  its  fats,  its  salts,  become  dissimilarly 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  345 

proportioned  in  different  localities;  and  multiplication  of 
isomeric  forms  leads  to  further  mixtures  and  combinations 
that  constitute  many  minor  distinctions  of  parts.  Here  a 
mass  darkened  by  accumulation  of  hematine,  presently  dis- 
solves into  blood.  There  fatty  and  albuminous  matters 
uniting,  compose  nerve-tissue.  At  this  spot  the  nitrogenous 
substance  takes  on  the  character  of  cartilage;  and  at  that, 
calcareous  salts,  gathering  together  in  the  cartilage,  lay  the 
foundation  of  bone.  All  these  chemical  differentiations 
slowly  and  insensibly  become  more  marked  and  more  mul- 
tiplied. 

Simultaneously  there  arise  contrasts  of  minute  struc- 
ture. Distinct  tissues  take  the  place  of  matter  that  had 
previously  no  recognizable  unlikenesses  of  parts;  and  each 
of  the  tissues  first  produced  undergoes  secondary  modifi- 
cations, causing  sub-species  of  tissues.  The 
granular  protoplasm  of  the  vegetal  germ,  equally  with  that 
which  forms  the  unfolding  point  of  every  shoot,  gives  origin 
to  cells  that  are  at  first  alike.  Some  of  these,  as  they  grow, 
flatten  and  unite  by  their  edges  to  form  the  outer  layer. 
Others  elongate  greatly,  and  at  the  same  time  join  together 
in  bundles  to  lay  the  foundation  of  woody-fibre.  Before 
they  begin  to  elongate,  certain  of  these  cells  show  a  break  - 
ing-up  of  the  lining  deposit,  which,  during  elongation,  be- 
comes a  spiral  thread,  or  a  reticulated  framework,  or  a 
series  of  rings;  and  by  the  longitudinal  union  of  cells  so 
lined,  vessels  are  formed.  Meanwhile  each  of  these  dif- 
ferentiated tissues  is  re-differentiated:  instance  that  which 
constitutes  the  essential  part  of  the  leaf,  the  upper  stratum 
of  which  is  composed  of  chlorophyll-cells  that  re- 
main closely  packed,  while  the  lower  stratum  becomes 
spongy.  Of  the  same  general  character  are  the 
transformations  undergone  by  the  fertilized  ovum,  which, 
at  first  a  cluster  of  similar  cells  quickly  reaches  a  stage  in 
which  these  cells  have  become  dissimilar.  More  frequently 
recurring  fission  of  the  superficial  cells,  a  resulting  smaller 
24 


346  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

size  of  them,  and  subsequent  union  of  thein  into  an  outer 
layer,  constitute  the  first  differentiation;  and  the  middle 
area  of  this  layer  is  rendered  unlike  the  rest  by  still  more 
active  processes  of  like  kind.  By  such  modifications  upon 
modifications,  too  multitudinous  to  enumerate  here,  arise 
the  classes  and  sub-classes  of  tissues  which,  variously  in- 
volved one  with  another,  compose  organs. 

Equally  conforming  to  the  law  are  the  changes  of  gen- 
eral shape  and  of  the  shapes  of  organs.  All  germs  are  at 
first  spheres  and  all  organs  are  at  first  buds  or  mere  rounded 
lumps.  From  this  primordial  uniformity  and  simplicity, 
there  takes  place  divergence,  both  of  the  wholes  and  the 
leading  parts,  towards  multiformity  of  contour  and  towards 
complexity  of  contour.  Cut  away  the  compactly- 

folded  young  leaves  that  terminate  every  shoot,  and  the 
nucleus  is  found  to  be  a  central  knob  bearing  lateral  knobs, 
one  of  which  may  grow  into  either  a  leaf,  a  sepal,  a  petal, 
a  stamen,  a  carpel :  all  these  eventually-unlike  parts  being  at 
first  alike.  The  shoots  themselves  also  depart  from  their 
primitive  unity  of  form;  and  while  each  branch  becomes 
more  or  less  different  from  the  rest,  the  whole  exposed 
part  of  the  plant  becomes  different  from  the  imbedded 
part.  So,  too,  is  it  with  the  organs  of  animals. 

One  of  the  Articulata,  for  instance,  has  limbs  that  are 
originally  indistinguishable  from  one  another — compose  a 
homogeneous  series;  but  by  continuous  divergences  there 
arise  among  them  unlikenesses  of  size  and  form,  such  as  we 
see  in  the  crab  and  the  lobster.  Vertebrate  creatures  equally 
exemplify  this  truth.  The  wings  and  legs  of  a  bird  are  of 
similar  shapes  when  they  bud-out  from  the  sides  of  the 
embryo. 

Thus  in  every  plant  and  animal,  conspicuous  second- 
ary re-distributions  accompany  the  primary  re-distribution. 
A  first  difference  between  two  parts;  in  each  of  these  parts 
other  differences  that  presently  become  as  marked  as  the 
first;  and  a  like  multiplication  of  differences  in  geometri- 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  347 

cal  progression,  until  there  is  reached  that  complex  combina- 
tion constituting  the  adult.  This  is  the  history  of  all  living 
things  whatever.  Pursuing  an  idea  which  Harvey  set 
afloat,  it  has  been  shown  by  Wolff  and  Yon  Baer,  that  dur- 
ing its  evolution  each  organism  passes  from  a  state  of  homo- 
geneity to  a  state  of  heterogeneity.  For  a  generation  this 
truth  has  been  accepted  by  biologists.* 

§  120.  When  we  pass  from  individual  forms  of  life  to 
life  in  general,  and  ask  whether  the  same  law  is  seen  in  the 
enseinble  of  its  manifestations — whether  modern  plants  and 
animals  have  more  heterogeneous  structures  than  ancient 

*  It  was  in  1852  that  I  became  acquainted  with  Yon  Baer's  expression  of 
this  general  principle.  The  universality  of  law  had  ever  been  with  me  a  pos- 
tulate, carrying  with  it  a  correlative  belief,  tacit  if  not  avowed,  in  unity  of 
method  throughout  Nature.  This  statement  that  every  plant  and  animal, 
originally  homogeneous  becomes  gradually  heterogeneous,  set  up  a  process  of 
co-ordination  among  accumulated  thoughts  that  were  previously  unorganized, 
or  but  partially  organized.  It  is  true  that  in  Social  Statics  (Part  IV.,  §§  12- 
16),  written  before  meeting  with  Von  Baer's  formula,  the  development  of  an 
individual  organism  and  the  development  of  the  social  organism,  are  described 
as  alike  consisting  in  advance  from  simplicity  to  complexity,  and  from  inde- 
pendent like  parts  to  mutually-dependent  unlike  parts — a  parallelism  implied 
by  Milne-Edwards' doctrine  of  "the  physiological  division  of  labour."  But 
though  admitting  of  extension  to  other  super-organic  phenomena,  this  state- 
ment was  too  special  to  admit  of  extension  to  inorganic  phenomena.  The 
great  aid  rendered  by  Von  Baer's  formula  arose  from  its  higher  generality ; 
since,  only  when  organic  transformations  had  been  expressed  in  the  most 
general  terms,  was  the  way  opened  for  seeing  what  they  had  in  common  with 
inorganic  transformations.  The  conviction  that  this  process  of  change  gone 
through  by  each  evolving  organism,  is  a  process  gone  through  by  all  things, 
found  its  first  coherent  statement  in  an  essay  on  "Progress:  its  Law  and 
Cause;"  which  I  published  in  the  Westminster  Review  for  April,  1857 — an 
essay  with  the  first  half  of  which  this  chapter  coincides  in  substance,  and 
partly  in  form.  In  that  essay,  however,  as  also  in  the  first  edition  of  this 
work,  I  fell  into  the  error  of  supposing  that  the  transformation  of  the  homo- 
geneous into  the  heterogeneous  constitutes  Evolution ;  whereas,  as  we  have 
seen,  it  constitutes  the  secondary  re-distribution  accompanying  the  primary  re- 
distribution in  that  Evolution  which  we  distinguish  as  compound — or  rather, 
as  we  shall  presently  see,  it  constitutes  the  most  conspicuous  part  of  this  sec- 
ondary re-distribution. 


348  THE  LAW  0F  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

ones,  and  whether  the  Earth's  present  Flora  and  Fauna  are 
more  heterogeneous  than  the  Flora  and  Fauna  of  the  past, — 
we  find  the  evidence  so  fragmentary,  that  every  conclusion 
is  open  to  dispute.  Two-thirds  of  the  Earth's  surface  being 
covered  by  water;  a  great  part  of  the  exposed  land  being  in- 
accessible to,  or  untra veiled  by,  the  geologist;  the  greater 
part  of  the  remainder  having  been  scarcely  more  than 
glanced  at;  and  even  the  most  familiar  portions,  as  England, 
having  been  so  imperfectly  explored,  that  a  new  series  of 
strata  has  been  added  within  these  few  years, — it  is  mani- 
festly impossible  for  us  to  say  with  any  certainty  what  crea- 
tures have,  and  what  have  not,  existed  at  any  particular 
period.  Considering  the  perishable  nature  of  many  of  the 
lower  organic  forms,  the  metamorphosis  of  many  sedimen- 
tary strata,  and  the  gaps  that  occur  among  the  rest,  we  shall 
see  further  reason  for  distrusting  our  deductions.  On  the 
one  hand,  the  repeated  discovery  of  vertebrate  remains  in 
strata  previously  supposed  to  contain  none, — of  reptiles 
where  only  fish  were  thought  to  exist, — of  mammals  where 
it  was  believed  there  were  no  creatures  higher  than  rep- 
tiles; renders  it  daily  more  manifest  how  small  is  the  value 
of  negative  evidence.  On  the  other  hand,  the  worthless- 
ness  of  the  assumption  that  we  have  discovered  the  earliest, 
or  anything  like  the  earliest,  organic  remains,  is  becoming 
equally  clear.  That  the  oldest  known  aqueous  formations 
have  been  greatly  changed  by  igneous  action,  and  that  still 
older  ones  have  been  totally  transformed  by  it,  is  becoming 
undeniable.  And  the  fact  that  sedimentary  strata  earlier 
than  any  we  know,  have  been  melted  up,  being  admitted,  it 
must  also  be  admitted  that  we  cannot  say  how  far  back  in 
time  this  destruction  of  sedimentary  strata  has  been  going 
on.  Thus  it  is  manifested  that  the  title  Palceozoic,  as  applied 
to  the  earliest  known  fossiliferous  strata,  involves  apetitio 
principii  ;  and  that,  for  aught  we  know  to  the  contrary,  only 
the  last  few  chapters  of  the  Earth's  biological  history  may 
have  come  down  to  us. 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  349 

All  inferences  drawn  from  such  scattered  facts  as 
we  find,  must  thus  be  extremely  questionable.  If, 
looking  at  the  general  aspect  of  evidence,  a  progressionist 
argues  that  the  earliest  known  vertebrate  remains  are  those 
of  Fishes,  which  are  the  most  homogeneous  of  the  verte- 
brata;  that  Reptiles,  which  are  more  heterogeneous,  are 
later;  and  that  later  still,  and  more  heterogeneous  still,  are 
Mammals  and  Birds;  it  may  be  replied  that  the  Palaeozoic 
deposits,  not  being  estuary  deposits,  are  not  likely  to  con- 
tain the  remains  of  terrestrial  vertebrata,  which  may  never- 
theless have  existed  at  that  era.  The  same  answer  may  be 
made  to  the  argument  that  the  vertebrate  fauna  of  the 
Palaeozoic  period,  consisting  so  far  as  we  know,  entirely  of 
Fishes,  was  less  heterogeneous  than  the  modern  vertebrate 
fauna,  which  includes  Reptiles,  Birds  and  Mammals,  of 
multitudinous  genera;  or  the  uniformitarian  may  contend 
with  great  show  of  truth,  that  this  appearance  of  higher 
and  more  varied  forms  in  later  geologic  eras,  was  due  to 
progressive  immigration — that  a  continent  slowly  upheaved 
from  the  ocean  at  a  point  remote  from  pre-existing  conti- 
nents, would  necessarily  be  peopled  from  them  in  a  suc- 
cession like  that  which  our  strata  display.  At  the 
same  time  the  counter-arguments  may  be  proved  equally  in- 
conclusive. When,  to  show  that  there  cannot  have  been  a 
continuous  evolution  of  the  more  homogeneous  organic 
forms  into  the  more  heterogeneous  ones,  the  uniformitarian 
points  to  the  breaks  that  occur  in  the  succession  of  these 
forms;  there  is  the  sufficient  answer  that  current  geological 
changes  show  us  why  such  breaks  must  occur,  and  why,  by 
subsidences  and  elevations  of  large  area,  there  must  be  pro- 
duced such  marked  breaks  as  those  which  divide  the  three 
great  geologic  epochs.  Or  again,  if  the  opponent  of  the  de- 
velopment hypothesis  cites  the  facts  set  forth  by  Professor 
Huxley  in  his  lecture  on  "  Persistent  Types  " — if  he  points 
out  that  "  of  some  two  hundred  known  orders  of  plants,  not 
one  is  exclusively  fossil/ '  while  "  among  animals,  there  is 


350  THE  LAW   OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

not  a  single  totally  extinct  class;  and  of  the  orders,  at  the 
outside  not  more  than  seven  per  cent,  are  unrepresented  in 
the  existing  creation  ,? — if  he  urges  that  among  these  some 
have  continued  from  the  Silurian  epoch  to  our  own  day  with 
scarcely  any  change — and  if  he  infers  that  there  is  evidently 
a  much  greater  average  resemblance  between  the  living 
forms  of  the  past  and  those  of  the  present,  than  con- 
sists with  this  hypothesis;  there  is  still  a  satisfactory 
reply,  on  which  in  fact  Prof.  Huxley  insists;  namely,  that 
we  have  evidence  of  a  "  pre-geologic  era  "  of  unknown  du- 
ration. And  indeed,  when  it  is  remembered,  that  the  enor- 
mous subsidences  of  the  Silurian  period  show  the  Earth's 
crust  to  have  been  approximately  as  thick  then  as  it  is  now 
— when  it  is  concluded  that  the  time  taken  to  form  so  thick 
a  crust,  must  have  been  immense  as  compared  with  the  time 
which  has  since  elapsed — when  it  is  assumed,  as  it  must  be, 
that  during  this  comparatively  immense  time  the  geologic 
and  biologic  changes  went  on  at  their  usual  rates;  it  be- 
comes manifest,  not  only  that  the  palaeontological  records 
which  we  find,  do  not  negative  the  theory  of  evolution, 
but  that  they  are  such  as  might  rationally  be  looked  for. 

Moreover,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  though  the  evi- 
dence suffices  neither  for  proof  nor  disproof,  yet  some  of  its 
most  conspicuous  facts  support  the  belief,  that  the  more  het- 
erogeneous organisms  and  groups  of  organisms,  have  been 
evolved  from  the  less  heterogeneous  ones.  The  average 
community  of  type  between  the  fossils  of  adjacent  strata, 
and  still  more  the  community  that  is  found  between  the 
latest  tertiary  fossils  and  creatures  now  existing,  is  one  of 
these  facts.  The  discovery  in  some  modern  deposits  of  such 
forms  as  the  Palaeotherium  and  Anaplotherium,  which,  if 
we  may  rely  on  Prof.  Owen,  had  a  type  of  structure  inter- 
mediate between  some  of  the  types  now  existing,  is  another 
of  these  facts.  And  the  comparatively  recent  appearance 
of  Man,  is  a  third  fact  of  this  kind,  which  possesses  still 
greater  significance.     Hence  we  may  say,  that  though  our 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  351 

knowledge  of  past  life  upon  the  Earth,  is  too  scanty  to  justify 
us  in  asserting  an  evolution  of  the  simple  into  the  complex, 
either  in  individual  forms  or  in  the  aggregate  of  forms;  yet 
the  knowledge  we  have,  not  only  consists  with  the  belief 
that  there  has  been  such  an  evolution,  but  rather  supports  it 
than  otherwise. 

§121.  Whether  an  advance  from  the  homogeneous  to 
the  heterogeneous  is  or  is  not  displayed  in  the  biological 
history  of  the  globe,  it  is  clearly  enough  displayed  in  the 
progress  of  the  latest  and  most  heterogeneous  creature — 
Man.  It  is  alike  true  that,  during  the  period  in  which  the 
Earth  has  been  peopled,  the  human  organism  has  grown 
more  heterogeneous  among  the  civilized  divisions  of  the  spe- 
cies; and  that  the  species,  as  a  whole,  has  been  made  more 
heterogeneous  by  the  multiplication  of  races  and  the  differ- 
entiation of  these  races  from  each  other.  In 
proof  of  the  first  of  these  positions,  we  may  cite  the  fact  that, 
in  the  relative  development  of  the  limbs,  the  civilized  man 
departs  more  widely  from  the  general  type  of  the  placental 
mammalia,  than  do  the  lower  human  races.  Though  often 
possessing  well-developed  body  and  arms,  the  Papuan  has 
extremely  small  legs :  thus  reminding  us  of  the  quadrumana, 
in  which  there  is  no  great  contrast  in  size  between  the  hind 
and  fore  limbs.  But  in  the  European,  the  greater  length 
and  massiveness  of  the  legs  has  become  very  marked — the 
fore  and  hind  limbs  are  relatively  more  heterogeneous. 
Again,  the  greater  ratio  which  the  cranial  bones  bear  to  the 
facial  bones,  illustrates  the  same  truth.  Among  the  verte- 
brata  in  general,  evolution  is  marked  by  an  increasing  het- 
erogeneity in  the  vertebral  column,  and  more  especially 
in  the  segments  constituting  the  skull:  the  higher  forms 
being  distinguished  by  the  relatively  larger  size  of  the  bones 
which  cover  the  brain,  and  the  relatively  smaller  size  of 
those  which  form  the  jaws,  &c.  Now,  this  characteristic, 
which  is  stronger  in  Man  than  in  any  other  creature,  is 


352  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

stronger  in  the  European  than  in  the  savage.  Moreover, 
judging  from  the  greater  extent  and  variety  of  faculty  he 
exhibits,  we  may  infer  that  the  civilized  man  has  also  a 
more  complex  or  heterogeneous  nervous  system  than  the  un- 
civilized man ;  and  indeed  the  fact  is  in  part  visible  in  the  in- 
creased ratio  which  his  cerebrum  bears  to  the  subjacent 
ganglia.  If  further  elucidation  be  needed,  we  may  find  it  in 
every  nursery.  The  infant  European  has  sundry  marked 
points  of  resemblance  to  the  lower  human  races;  as  in  the 
flatness  of  the  alse  of  the  nose,  the  depression  of  its  bridge, 
the  divergence  and  forward  opening  of  the  nostrils,  the  form 
of  the  lips,  the  absence  of  a  frontal  sinus,  the  width  between 
the  eyes,  the  smallness  of  the  legs.  Kow,  as  the  develop- 
mental process  by  which  these  traits  are  turned  into  those  of 
the  adult  European,  is  a  continuation  of  that  change  from 
the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous  displayed  during  the 
previous  evolution  of  the  embryo,  which  every  physiologist 
will  admit ;  it  follows  that  the  parallel  developmental  process 
by  which  the  like  traits  of  the  barbarous  races  have  been 
turned  into  those  of  the  civilized  races,  has  also  been  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  change  from  the  homogeneous  to  the  hetero- 
geneous. The  truth  of  the  second  position — that 
Mankind,  as  a  whole,  have  become  more  heterogeneous — is 
so  obvious  as  scarcely  to  need  illustration.  Every  work 
on  Ethnology,  by  its  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  races, 
bears  testimony  to  it.  Even  were  we  to  admit  the  hypothesis 
that  Mankind  originated  from  several  separate  stocks,  it 
would  still  remain  true  that  as,  from  each  of  these  stocks, 
there  have  sprung  many  now  widely  different  tribes,  which 
are  proved  by  philological  evidence  to  have  had  a  common 
origin,  the  race  as  a  whole  is  far  less  homogeneous  than  it 
once  was.  Add  to  which,  that  we  have,  in  the  Anglo-Ameri- 
cans, an  example  of  a  new  variety  arising  within  these  few 
generations ;  and  that,  if  we  may  trust  to  the  descriptions  of 
observers,  we  are  likely  soon  to  have  another  such  example 
in  Australia. 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  353 

§  122.  On  passing  from  Humanity  under  its  individual 
form,  to  Humanity  as  socially  embodied,  we  find  the  general 
law  still  more  variously  exemplified.  The  change  from  the 
homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous,  is  displayed  equally  in 
the  progress  of  civilization  as  a  whole,  and  in  the  progress  of 
every  tribe  or  nation;  and  is  still  going  on  with  increasing- 
rapidity. 

As  we  see  in  existing  barbarous  tribes,  society  in  its  first 
and  lowest  forms  is  a  homogeneous  aggregation  of  individu- 
als having  like  powers  and  like  functions :  the  only  marked 
difference  of  function  being  that  which  accompanies  differ- 
ence of  sex.  Every  man  is  warrior,  hunter,  fisherman,  tool- 
maker,  builder;  every  woman  performs  the  same  drudger- 
ies; every  family  is  self-sufficing,  and,  save  for  purposes  of 
aggression  and  defence,  might  as  well  live  apart  from  the 
rest.  Very  early,  however,  in  the  process  of  social  evolu- 
tion, we  find  an  incipient  differentiation  between  the  gov- 
erning and  the  governed.  Some  kind  of  chieftainship 
seems  coeval  with  the  first  advance  from  the  state  of  separate 
wandering  families  to  that  of  a  nomadic  tribe.  The  author- 
ity of  the  strongest  makes  itself  felt  among  a  body  of  sav- 
ages, as  in  a  herd  of  animals,  or  a  posse  of  schoolboys.  At 
first,  however,  it  is  indefinite,  uncertain ;  is  shared  by  others 
of  scarcely  inferior  power;  and  is  unaccompanied  by  any  dif- 
ference or  occupation  or  style  of  living:  the  first  ruler  kills 
his  own  game,  makes  his  own  weapons,  builds  his  own  hut, 
and,  economically  considered,  does  not  differ  from  others 
of  his  tribe.  Gradually,  as  the  tribe  progresses,  the  contrast 
between  the  governing  and  the  governed  grows  more  de- 
cided. Supreme  power  becomes  hereditary  in  one  family; 
the  head  of  that  family,  ceasing  to  provide  for  his  own 
wants,  is  served  by  others;  and  he  begins  to  assume  the  sole 
office  of  ruling.  At  the  same  time  there  has  been 

arising  a  co-ordinate  species  of  government — that  of  Re- 
ligion. As  all  ancient  records  and  traditions  prove,  the  earli- 
est rulers  are  regarded  as  divine  personages.     The  maxims 


354  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

and  commands  they  uttered  during  their  lives  are  held  sa- 
cred after  their  deaths,  and  are  enforced  by  their  divinely- 
descended  successors;  who  in  their  turns  are  promoted  to 
the  pantheon  of  the  race,  there  to  be  worshipped  and 
propitiated  along  with  their  predecessors;  the  most  an- 
cient of  whom  is  the  supreme  god,  and  the  rest  subordinate 
gods.  For  a  long  time  these  connate  forms  of  government — 
civil  and  religious — continue  closely  associated.  For  many 
generations  the  king  continues  to  be  the  chief  priest,  and  the 
priesthood  to  be  members  of  the  royal  race.  For  many  ages 
religious  law  continues  to  contain  more  or  less  of  civil  regu- 
lation, and  civil  law  to  possess  more  or  less  of  religious  sanc- 
tion; and  even  among  the  most  advanced  nations  these  two 
controlling  agencies  are  by  no  means  completely  differen- 
tiated from  each  other.  Having  a  common  root 
with  these,  and  gradually  diverging  from  them,  we  find  yet 
another  controlling  agency — that  of  Manners  or  ceremonial 
usages.  All  titles  of  honour  are  originally  the  names  of  the 
god-king;  afterwards  of  God  and  the  king;  still  later  of  per- 
sons of  high  rank;  and  finally  come,  some  of  them,  to  be  used 
between  man  and  man.  All  forms  of  complimentary  ad- 
dress were  at  first  the  expressions  of  submission  from  prison- 
ers to  their  conqueror,  or  from  subjects  to  their  ruler,  either 
human  or  divine — expressions  that  were  afterwards  used  to 
propitiate  subordinate  authorities,  and  slowly  descended  into 
ordinary  intercourse.  All  modes  of  salutation  were  once 
obeisances  made  before  the  monarch  and  used  in  worship  of 
him  after  his  death.  Presently  others  of  the  god-descended 
race  were  similarly  saluted ;  and  by  degrees  some  of  the  salu- 
tations have  become  the  due  of  all.*  Tims,  no  sooner  does 
the  originally  homogeneous  social  mass  differentiate  into 
the  governed  and  the  governing  parts,  than  this  last  exhib- 
its an  incipient  differentiation  into  religious  and  secular — 
Church  and  State ;  while  at  the  same  time  there  begins  to  be 
differentiated  from  both,  that  less  de'finite  species  of  gov- 
*  For  detailed  proof  of  these  assertions  see  essay  on  Manners  and  Fashion. 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  355 

eminent  which  rules  our  daily  intercourse — a  species  of 
government  which,  as  we  may  see  in  heralds'  colleges,  in 
books  of  the  peerage,  in  masters  of  ceremonies,  is  not  with- 
out a  certain  embodiment  of  its  own.  Each  of 
these  kinds  of  government  is  itself  subject  to  successive 
differentiations.  In  the  course  of  ages,  there  arises,  as 
among  ourselves,  a  highly  complex  political  organization 
of  monarch,  ministers,  lords  and  commons,  with  their  sub- 
ordinate administrative  departments,  courts  of  justice,  reve- 
nue offices,  &c,  supplemented  in  the  provinces  by  muni- 
cipal governments,  county  governments,  parish  or  union 
governments — all  of  them  more  or  less  elaborated.  By  its 
side  there  grows  up  a  highly  complex  religious  organization, 
with  its  various  grades  of  officials  from  archbishops  down  to 
sextons,  its  colleges,  convocations,  ecclesiastical  courts, 
&c. ;  to  all  which  must  be  added  the  ever-multiplying  inde- 
pendent sects,  each  with  its  general  and  local  authorities. 
And  at  the  same  time  there  is  developed  a  highly  complex 
aggregation  of  customs,  manners,  and  temporary  fashions, 
enforced  by  society  at  large,  and  serving  to  control  those 
minor  transactions  between  man  and  man  which  are  not 
regulated  by  civil  and  religious  law.  Moreover,  it  is  to  be 
observed  that  this  ever-increasing  heterogeneity  in  the  gov- 
ernmental appliances  of  each  nation,  has  been  accompanied 
by  an  increasing  heterogeneity  in  the  governmental  appli- 
ances of  different  nations:  all  of  which  are  more  or  less  un- 
like in  their  political  systems  and  legislation,  in  their  creeds 
and  religious  institutions,  in  their  customs  and  ceremonial 
usages. 

Simultaneously  there  has  been  going  on  a  second  differ- 
entiation of  a  more  familiar  kind;  that,  namely,  by  which 
the  mass  of  the  community  has  been  segregated  into  distinct 
classes  and  orders  of  workers.  While  the  governing  part  has 
undergone  the  complex  development  above  detailed,  the 
governed  part  has  undergone  an  equally  complex  develop- 
ment; which  has  resulted  in  that  minute  division  of  labour 


356  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

characterizing  advanced  nations.  It  is  needless  to 

trace  out  this  progress  from  its  first  stages,  up  through  the 
caste  divisions  of  the  East  and  the  incorporated  guilds  of 
Europe,  to  the  elaborate  producing  and  distributing  organ- 
ization existing  among  ourselves.  Political  economists  have 
long  since  indicated  the  evolution  which,  beginning  with  a 
tribe  whose  members  severally  perform  the  same  actions, 
each  for  himself  ends  with  a  civilized  community  whose 
members  severally  perform  different  actions  for  each  other; 
and  they  have  further  pointed  out  the  changes  through 
which  the  solitary  producer  of  any  one  commodity,  is  trans- 
formed into  a  combination  of  producers  who,  united  under 
a  master,  take  separate  parts  in  the  manufacture  of  such 
commodity.  But  there  are  yet  other  and  higher 

phases  of  this  advance  from  the  homogeneous  to  the  hetero- 
geneous in  the  industrial  organization  of  society.  Long 
after  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  the  division 
of  labour  among  the  different  classes  of  workers,  there  is 
still  little  or  no  division  of  labour  among  the  widely  sepa- 
rated parts  of  the  community:  the  nation  continues  com- 
paratively homogeneous  in  the  respect  that  in  each  district 
the  same  occupations  are  pursued.  But  when  roads  and 
other  means  of  transit  become  numerous  and  good,  the  dif- 
ferent districts  begin  to  assume  different  functions,  and  to 
become  mutually  dependent.  The  calico-manufacture  lo- 
cates itself  in  this  county,  the  woollen-manufacture  in  that ; 
silks  are  produced  here,  lace  there;  stockings  in  one  place, 
shoes  in  another;  pottery,  hardware,  cutlery,  come  to  have 
their  special  towns;  and  ultimately  every  locality  grows 
more  or  less  distinguished  from  the  rest  by  the  leading  occu- 
pation carried  on  in  it.  Nay,  more,  this  subdivision  of  func- 
tions shows  itself  not  only  among  the  different  parts  of  the 
same  nation,  but  among  different  nations.  That  exchange 
of  commodities  which  free-trade  promises  so  greatly 
to  increase,  will  ultimately  have  the  effect  of  special- 
izing, in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  the  industry  of  each 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION   CONTINUED.  357 

people.  So  that  beginning  with  a  barbarous  tribe, 

almost  if  not  quite  homogeneous  in  the  functions  of  its  mem- 
bers, the  progress  has  been,  and  still  is,  towards  an  economic 
aggregation  of  the  whole  human  race;  growing  ever  more 
heterogeneous  in  respect  of  the  separate  functions  assumed 
by  separate  nations,  the  separate  functions  assumed  by  the 
local  sections  of  each  nation,  the  separate  functions  assumed 
by  the  many  kinds  of  makers  and  traders  in  each  town,  and 
the  separate  functions  assumed  by  the  workers  united  in 
producing  each  commodity. 

§  123.  'Not  only  is  the  law  thus  clearly  exemplified  in 
the  evolution  of  the  social  organism,  but  it  is  exemplified 
with  equal  clearness  in  the  evolution  of  all  products  of 
human  thought  and  action;  whether  concrete  or  abstract, 
real  or  ideal.    Let  us  take  Language  as  our  first  illustration. 

The  lowest  form  of  language  is  the  exclamation,  by 
which  an  entire  idea  is  vaguely  conveyed  through  a  single 
sound;  as  among  the  lower  animals.  That  human  language 
ever  consisted  solely  of  exclamations,  and  so  was  strictly 
homogeneous  in  respect  of  its  parts  of  speech,  we  have  no 
evidence.  But  that  language  can  be  traced  down  to  a  form 
in  which  nouns  and  verbs  are  its  only  elements,  is  an  estab- 
lished fact.  In  the  gradual  multiplication  of  parts  of  speech 
out  of  these  primary  ones — in  the  differentiation  of  verbs 
into  active  and  passive,  of  nouns  into  abstract  and  concrete 
— in  the  rise  of  distinctions  of  mood,  tense,  person,  of  num- 
ber and  case — in  the  formation  of  auxiliary  verbs,  of  ad- 
jectives, adverbs,  pronouns,  prepositions,  articles — in  the 
divergence  of  those  orders,  genera,  species,  and  varieties  of 
parts  of  speech  by  which  civilized  races  express  minute 
modifications  of  meaning — we  see  a  change  from  the  homo- 
geneous to  the  heterogeneous.  And  it  may  be  remarked,  in 
passing,  that  it  is  more  especially  in  virtue  of  having  car- 
ried this  subdivision  of  functions  to  a  greater  extent  and 
completeness,  that  the  English  language  is  superior  to  all 


358  THE  LAW  OP  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

others.  Another   aspect  under  which  we  may 

trace  the  development  of  language,  is  the  differentiation  of 
words  of  allied  meanings.  Philology  early  disclosed  the 
truth  that  in  all  languages  words  may  be  grouped  into  fami- 
lies having  a  common  ancestry.  An  aboriginal  name,  ap- 
plied indiscriminately  to  each  of  an  extensive  and  ill-defined 
class  of  things  or  actions,  presently  undergoes  modifications 
by  which  the  chief  divisions  of  the  class  are  expressed. 
These  several  names  springing  from  the  primitive  root, 
themselves  become  the  parents  of  other  names  still  further 
modified.  And  by  the  aid  of  those  systematic  modes  which 
presently  arise,  of  making  derivatives  and  forming  com- 
pound terms  expressing  still  smaller  distinctions,  there  is 
finally  developed  a  tribe  of  words  so  heterogeneous  in  sound 
and  meaning,  that  to  the  uninitiated  it  seems  incredible 
they  should  have  had  a  common  origin.  Meanwhile,  from 
other  roots  there  are  being  evolved  other  such  tribes,  until 
there  results  a  language  of  some  sixty  thousand  or  more 
unlike  words,  signifying  as  many  unlike  objects,  qualities 
acts.  Yet  another  way  in  which  language  in 

general  advances  from  the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogene- 
ous, is  in  the  multiplication  of  languages.  Whether,  as 
Max  Midler  and  Bunsen  think,  all  languages  have  grown 
from  one  stock,  or  whether,  as  some  philologists  say,  they 
have  grown  from  two  or  more  stocks,  it  is  clear  that  since 
large  families  of  languages,  as  the  Indo-European,  are 
of  one  parentage,  they  have  become  distinct  through  a  pro- 
cess of  continuous  divergence.  The  same  diffusion  over  the 
Earth's  surface  which  has  led  to  the  differentiation  of  the 
race,  has  simultaneously  led  to  a  differentiation  of  their 
speech:  a  truth  which  we  see  further  illustrated  in  each 
nation  by  the  peculiarities  of  dialect  found  in  separate  dis- 
tricts. Thus  the  progress  of  Language  conforms  to  the 
general  law,  alike  in  the  evolution  of  languages,  in  the 
evolution  of  families  of  words,  and  in  the  evolution  of  parts 
of  speech. 


THE  LAW  OF   EVOLUTION   CONTINUED.  359 

On  passing  from  spoken  to  written  language,  we  come 
upon  several  classes  of  facts,  all  having  similar  implications. 
Written  language  is  connate  with  Painting  and  Sculpture; 
and  at  first  all  three  are  appendages  of  Architecture,  and 
have  a  direct  connexion  with  the  primary  form  of  all  Gov- 
ernment— the  theocratic.  Merely  noting  by  the  way  the 
fact  that  sundry  wild  races,  as  for  example  the  Australians 
and  the  tribes  of  South  Africa,  are  given  to  depicting  per- 
sonages and  events  upon  the  walls  of  caves,  which  are  proba- 
bly regarded  as  sacred  places,  let  us  pass  to  the  case  of  the 
Egyptians.  Among  them,  as  also  among  the  Assyrians,  we 
find  mural  paintings  used  to  decorate  the  temple  of  the  god 
and  the  palace  of  the  king  (which  were,  indeed,  originally 
identical) ;  and  as  such  they  were  governmental  appliances 
in  the  same  sense  that  state-pageants  and  religious  feasts 
were.  Further,  they  were  governmental  appliances  in  vir- 
tue of  representing  the  worship  of  the  god,  the  triumphs  of 
the  god-king,  the  submission  of  his  subjects,  and  the  punish- 
ment of  the  rebellious.  And  yet  again  they  were  govern- 
mental, as  being  the  products  of  an  art  reverenced  by  the 
people  as  a  sacred  mystery.  From  the  habitual  use 

of  this  pictorial  representation,  there  naturally  grew  up  the 
but  slightly-modified  practice  of  picture-writing — a  prac- 
tice which  was  found  still  extant  among  the  Mexicans  at  the 
time  they  were  discovered.  By  abbreviations  analogous  to 
those  still  going  on  in  our  own  written  and  spoken  language, 
the  most  familiar  of  these  pictured  figures  were  successively 
simplified;  and  ultimately  there  grew  up  a  system  of  sym- 
bols, most  of  which  had  but  a  distant  resemblance  to  the 
things  for  which  they  stood.  The  inference  that  the  hiero- 
glyphics of  the  Egyptians  were  thus  produced,  is  confirmed 
by  the  fact  that  the  picture-writing  of  the  Mexicans  was 
found  to  have  given  birth  to  a  like  family  of  ideographic 
forms;  and  among  them,  as  among  the  Egyptians,  these  had 
been  partially  differentiated  into  the  kuriologieal  or  imita- 
tive, and  the  tropical  or  symbolic  :  which  were,  however, 


360  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

used  together  in  the  same  record.  In  Egypt,  written  lan- 
guage underwent  a  further  differentiation;  whence  resulted 
the  hieratic  and  the  epistolographic  or  enchorial :  both  of 
which  are  derived  from  the  original  hieroglyphic.  At  the 
same  time  we  find  that  for  the  expression  of  proper  names, 
which  could  not  be  otherwise  conveyed,  phonetic  symbols 
were  employed;  and  though  it  is  alleged  that  the  Egyptians 
never  actually  achieved  complete  alphabetic  writing,  yet 
it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  these  phonetic  symbols  oc- 
casionally used  in  aid  of  their  ideographic  ones,  were  the 
germs  out  of  which  alphabetic  writing  grew.  Once  having 
become  separate  from  hieroglyphics,  alphabetic  writing  itself 
underwent  numerous  differentiations — multiplied  alphabets 
were  produced:  between  most  of  which,  however,  more  or 
less  connexion  can  still  be  traced.  And  in  each  civilized 
nation  there  has  now  grown  up,  for  the  representation  of  one 
set  of  sounds,  several  sets  of  written  signs,  used  for  distinct 
purposes.  Finally,  through  a  yet  more  important  differen- 
tiation came  printing;  which,  uniform  in  kind  as  it  was  at 
first,  has  since  become  multiform. 

§  124.  While  written  language  was  passing  through  its 
earlier  stages  of  development,  the  mural  decoration  which 
formed  its  root  was  being  differentiated  into  Painting  and 
Sculpture.  The  gods,  kings,  men,  and  animals  represented, 
were  originally  marked  by  indented  outlines  and  coloured. 
In  most  cases  these  outlines  were  of  such  depth,  and  the 
object  they  circumscribed  so  far  rounded  and  marked  out  in 
its  leading  parts,  as  to  form  a  species  of  work  intermediate 
between  intaglio  and  bas-relief.  In  other  cases  we  see  an 
advance  upon  this:  the  raised  spaces  between  the  figures 
being  chiselled  off,  and  the  figures  themselves  appropriately 
tinted,  a  painted  bas-relief  was  produced.  The  restored 
Assyrian  architecture  at  Sydenham,  exhibits  this  style  of  art 
carried  to  greater  perfection — the  persons  and  things  repre- 
sented, though  still  barbarously  coloured,  are  carved  out 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION   CONTINUED.  3d 

with  more  truth  and  in  greater  detail;  and  in  the  winged 
lions  and  bulls  used  for  the  angles  of  gateways,  we  may  see 
a  considerable  advance  towards  a  completely  sculptured 
figure;  which,  nevertheless,  is  still  coloured,  and  still  forms 
part  of  the  building.  But  while  in  Assyria  the  production 
of  a  statue  proper,  seems  to  have  been  little,  if  at  all,  at- 
tempted, we  may  trace  in  Egyptian  art  the  gradual  separa- 
tion of  the  sculptured  figure  from  the  wall.  A  walk  through 
the  collection  in  the  British  Museum  will  clearly  show  this; 
while  it  will  at  the  same  time  afford  an  opportunity  of  ob- 
serving the  evident  traces  which  the  independent  statues 
bear  of  their  derivation  from  bas-relief:  seeing  that  nearly 
all  of  them  not  only  display  that  union  of  the  limbs  with  the 
body  which  is  the  characteristic  of  bas-relief,  but  have  the 
back  of  the  statue  united  from  head  to  foot  with  a  block 
which  stands  in  place  of  the  original  wall.  Greece 

repeated  the  leading  stages  of  this  progress.  As  in  Egypt 
and  Assyria,  these  twin  arts  were  at  first  united  with  each 
other  and  with  their  parent,  Architecture ;  and  were  the  aids 
of  Eeligion  and  Government.  On  the  friezes  of  Greek 
temples,  we  see  coloured  bas-reliefs  representing  sacrifices, 
battles,  processions,  games — all  in  some  sort  religious.  On 
the  pediments  we  see  painted  sculptures  more  or  less  united 
with  the  tympanum,  and  having  for  subjects  the  triumphs  of 
gods  or  heroes.  Even  when  we  come  to  statues  that  are  defi- 
nitely separated  from  the  buildings  to  which  they  pertain, 
we  still  find  them,  coloured ;  and  only  in  the  later  periods  of 
Greek  civilization,  does  the  differentiation  of  sculpture  from 
painting  appear  to  have  become  complete.  In  Chris- 

tian art  we  may  clearly  trace  a  parallel  re-genesis.  All  early 
paintings  and  sculptures  throughout  Europe,  were  religious 
in  subject — represented  Christs,  crucifixions,  virgins,  holy 
families,  apostles,  saints.  They  formed  integral  parts  of 
church  architecture,  and  were  among  the  means  of  exciting 
worship:  as  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  they  still  are. 
Moreover,  the  early  sculptures  of  Christ  on  the  cross,  of 
25 


362  THE  LAW  0F  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

virgins,  of  saints,  were  coloured;. and  it  needs  but  to  call  to 
mind  the  painted  madonnas  and  crucifixes  still  abundant  in 
continental  churches  and  highways,  to  perceive  the  signifi- 
cant fact  that  painting  and  sculpture  continue  in  closest  con- 
nexion with  each  other,  where  they  continue  in  closest  con- 
nexion with  their  parent.  Even  when  Christian  sculpture 
was  pretty  clearly  differentiated  from  painting,  it  was  still 
religious  and  governmental  in  its  subjects — was  used  for 
tombs  in  churches  and  statues  of  kings ;  while,  at  the  same 
time,  painting,  where  not  purely  ecclesiastical,  was  applied 
to  the  decoration  of  palaces,  and  besides  representing  royal 
personages,  was  almost  wholly  devoted  to  sacred  legends. 
Only  in  quite  recent  times  have  painting  and  sculpture  be- 
come entirely  secular  arts.  Only  within  these  few  centuries 
has  painting  been  divided  into  historical,  landscape,  marine, 
architectural,  genre,  animal,  still-life,  &c,  and  sculpture 
grown  heterogeneous  in  respect  of  the  variety  of  real  and 
ideal  subjects  with  which  it  occupies  itself. 

Strange  as  it  seems  then,  we  find  it  no  less  true,  that  all 
forms  of  written  language,  of  painting,  and  of  sculpture, 
have  a  common  root  in  the  politico-religious  decorations  of 
ancient  temples  and  palaces.  Little  resemblance  as  they 
now  have,  the  bust  that  stands  on  the  console,  the  landscape 
that  hangs  against  the  wall,  and  the  copy  of  the  Times  lying 
upon  the  table,  are  remotely  akin;  not  only  in  nature,  but 
by  extraction.  The  brazen  face  of  the  knocker  which  the 
postman  has  just  lifted,  is  related  not  only  to  the  woodcuts 
of  the  Illustrated  London  News  which  he  is  delivering,  but 
to  the  characters  of  the  billet-doux  which  accompanies  it. 
Between  the  painted  window,  the  prayer-book  on  which  its 
light  falls,  and  the  adjacent  monument,  there  is  consan- 
guinity. The  effigies  on  our  coins,  the  signs  over  shops, 
the  figures  that  fill  every  ledger,  the  coat  of  arms  outside  the 
carriage-panel,  and  the  placards  inside  the  omnibus,  are,  in 
common  with  dolls,  blue-books  and  paper-hangings,  lineally 
descended  from  the  rude  sculpture-paintings  in  which  the 


THE  LAW  OF   EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  303 

Egyptians  represented  the  triumphs  and  worship  of  their 
god-kings.  Perhaps  no  example  can  be  given  which  more 
vividly  illustrates  the  multiplicity  and  heterogeneity  of  the 
products  that  in  course  of  time  may  arise  by  successive  dif- 
ferentiations from  a  common  stock. 

Before  passing  to  other  classes  of  facts,  it  should  be  ob- 
served that  the  evolution  of  the  homogeneous  into  the  het- 
erogeneous is  displayed  not  only  in  the  separation  of  Paint- 
ing and  Sculpture  from  Architecture  and  from  each  other, 
and  in  the  greater  variety  of  subjects  they  embody;  but  it  is 
further  shown  in  the  structure  of  each  work.  A  modern 
picture  or  statue  is  of  far  more  heterogeneous  nature  than  an 
ancient  one.  An  Egyptian  sculpture-fresco  represents  all  its 
figures  as  on  one  plane — that  is,  at  the  same  distance  from 
the  eye;  and  so  is  less  heterogeneous  than  a  painting  that 
represents  them  as  at  various  distances  from  the  eye.  It  ex- 
hibits all  objects  as  exposed  to  the  same  degree  of  light;  and 
so  is  less  heterogeneous  than  a  painting  which  exhibits  differ- 
ent objects,  and  different  parts  of  each  object,  as  in  different 
degrees  of  light.  It  uses  scarcely  any  but  the  primary  col- 
ours, and  these  in  their  full  intensity;  and  so  is  less  hetero- 
geneous than  a  painting  which,  introducing  the  primary  col- 
ours but  sparingly,  employs  an  endless  variety  of  intermedi- 
ate tints,  each  of  heterogeneous  composition,  and  dif- 
fering from  the  rest  not  only  in  quality  but  in  in- 
tensity. Moreover,  we  see  in  these  earliest  works 
a  great  uniformity  of  conception.  The  same  arrangement 
of  figures  is  perpetually  reproduced — the  same  actions, 
attitudes,  faces,  dresses.  In  Egypt  the  modes  of  representa- 
tion were  so  fixed  that  it  was  sacrilege  to  introduce  a  nov- 
elty; and  indeed  it  could  have  been  only  in  consequence 
of  a  fixed  mode  of  representation  that  a  system  of  hiero- 
glyphics became  possible.  The  Assyrian  bas-reliefs  display 
parallel  characters.  Deities,  kings,  attendants,  winged-fig- 
ures and  animals,  are  severally  depicted  in  like  positions, 
holding  like  implements,  doing  like  things,  and  with  like 


364  THE   LAW  0F  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

expression  or  non-expression  of  face.  If  a  palm-grove  is  in- 
troduced, all  the  trees  are  of  the  same  height,  have  the  same 
number  of  leaves,  and  are  equidistant.  When  water  is 
imitated,  each  wave  is  a  counterpart  of  the  rest ;  and  the  fish, 
almost  always  of  one  kind,  are  evenly  distributed  over  the 
surface.  The  beards  of  the  kings,  the  gods,  and  the  winged- 
figures,  are  everywhere  similar;  as  are  the  manes  of  the 
lions,  and  equally  so  those  of  the  horses.  Hair  is  represented 
throughout  by  one  form  of  curl.  The  king's  beard  is  quite 
architecturally  built  up  of  compound  tiers  of  uniform  curls, 
alternating  with  twisted  tiers  placed  in  a  transverse  direc- 
tion, and  arranged  with  perfect  regularity ;  and  the  terminal 
tufts  of  the  bulls'  tails  are  represented  in  exactly  the  same 
manner.  Without  tracing  out  analogous  facts  in 

early  Christian  art,  in  which,  though  less  striking,  they  are 
still  visible,  the  advance  in  heterogeneity  will  be  sufficiently 
manifest  on  remembering  that  in  the  pictures  of  our  own 
day  the  composition  is  endlessly  varied ;  the  attitudes,  faces, 
expressions,  unlike;  the  subordinate  objects  different  in  size, 
form,  position,  texture ;  and  more  or  less  of  contrast  even  in 
the  smallest  details.  Or,  if  we  compare  an  Egyptian  statue, 
seated  bolt  upright  on  a  block,  with  hands  on  knees,  fingers 
outspread  and  parallel,  eyes  looking  straight  forward,  and 
the  two  sides  perfectly  symmetrical  in  every  particular,  with 
a  statue  of  the  advanced  Greek  or  the  modern  school,  which 
is  asymmetrical  in  respect  of  the  position  of  the  head,  the 
body,  the  limbs,  the  arrangement  of  the  hair,  dress,  append- 
ages, and  in  its  relations  to  neighbouring  objects,  we  shall 
see  the  change  from  the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous 
clearly  manifested. 

§  125.  In  the  co-ordinate  origin  and  gradual  differen- 
tiation of  Poetry,  Music,  and  Dancing,  we  have  another 
series  of  illustrations.  Rhythm  in  speech,  rhythm  in  sound, 
and  rhythm  in  motion,  were  in  the  beginning,  parts  of  the 
same  thing;  and  have  only  in  process  of  time  become  sepa- 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  365 

rate  things.  Among  various  existing  barbarous  tribes  we 
find  them  still  united.  The  dances  of  savages  are  accompa- 
nied by  some  kind  of  monotonous  chant,  the  clapping  of 
hands,  the  striking  of  rude  instruments :  there  are  measured 
movements,  measured  words,  and  measured  tones;  and  the 
whole  ceremony,  usually  having  reference  to  war  or  sacri- 
fice, is  of  governmental  character.  In  the  early  records  of 
the  historic  races  we  similarly  find  these  three  forms  of 
metrical  action  united  in  religious  festivals.  In  the  Hebrew 
writings  we  read  that  the  triumphal  ode  composed  by  Moses 
on  the  defeat  of  the  Egyptians,  was  sung  to  an  accompani- 
ment of  dancing  and  timbrels.  The  Israelites  danced  and 
sung  "  at  the  inauguration  of  the  golden  calf.  And  as  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  this  representation  of  the  Deity  was 
borrowed  from  the  mysteries  of  Apis,  it  is  probable  that  the 
dancing  was  copied  from  that  of  the  Egyptians  on  those  oc- 
casions." There  was  an  annual  dance  in  Shiloh  on  the 
sacred  festival;  and  David  danced  before  the  ark.  Again, 
in  Greece  the  like  relation  is  everywhere  seen:  the  original 
type  being  there,  as  probably  in  other  cases,  a  simultaneous 
chanting  and  mimetic  representation  of  the  life  and  ad- 
ventures of  the  god.  The  Spartan  dances  were  accompa- 
nied by  hymns  and  songs;  and  in  general  the  Greeks  had 
"  no  festivals  or  religious  assemblies  but  what  were  ac- 
companied with  songs  and  dances  " — both  of  them  being 
forms  of  worship  used  before  altars.  Among  the  Romans, 
too,  there  were  sacred  dances:  the  Salian  and  Lupercalian 
being  named  as  of  that  kind.  And  even  in  Christian  coun- 
tries, as  at  Limoges  in  comparatively  recent  times,  the  people 
have  danced  in  the  choir  in  honour  of  a  saint.  The 

incipient  separation  of  these  once  united  arts  from  each 
other  and  from  religion,  was  early  visible  in  Greece.  Prob- 
ably diverging  from  dances  partly  religious,  partly  warlike, 
as  the  Corybantian,  came  the  war-dances  proper,  of  which 
there  were  various  kinds;  and  from  these  resulted  secular 
dances.    Meanwhile  Music  and  Poetry,  though  still  united, 


366  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

came  to  have  an  existence  separate  from  dancing.  The  abo- 
riginal Greek  poems,  religious  in  subject,  were  not  recited 
but  chanted ;  and  though  at  first  the  chant  of  the  poet  was  ac- 
companied by  the  dance  of  the  chorus,  it  ultimately  grew 
into  independence.  Later  still,  when  the  poem  had  been 
differentiated  into  epic  and  lyric — when  it  became  the  cus- 
tom to  sing  the  lyric  and  recite  the  epic — poetry  proper  was 
born.  As  during  the  same  period  musical  instruments  were 
being  multiplied,  we  may  presume  that  music  came 
to  have  an  existence  apart  from  words.  And  both  of 
them  were  beginning  to  assume  other  forms  besides  the  re- 
ligious. Facts  having  like  implications  might  be 
cited  from  the  histories  of  later  times  and  peoples;  as  the 
practices  of  our  own  early  minstrels,  who  sang  to  the  harp 
heroic  narratives  versified  by  themselves  to  music  of  their 
own  composition:  thus  uniting  the  now  separate  offices  of 
poet,  composer,  vocalist,  and  instrumentalist.  But,  without 
further  illustration,  the  common  origin  and  gradual  differ- 
entiation of  Dancing,  Poetry,  and  Music  will  be  sufficiently 
manifest. 

The  advance  from  the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogene- 
ous is  displayed  not  only  in  the  separation  of  these  arts  from 
each  other  and  from  religion,  but  also  in  the  multiplied 
differentiations  which  each  of  them  afterwards  undergoes. 
Not  to  dwell  upon  the  numberless  kinds  of  dancing  that 
have,  in  course  of  time,  come  into  use;  and  not  to  occupy 
space  in  detailing  the  progress  of  poetry,  as  seen  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  various  forms  of  metre,  of  rhyme,  and  of 
general  organization;  let  us  confine  our  attention  to  music 
as  a  type  of  the  group.  As  argued  by  Dr  Burney, 

and  as  implied  by  the  customs  of  still  extant  barbarous  races, 
the  first  musical  instruments  were,  without  doubt,  percus- 
sive — sticks,  calabashes,  tom-toms — and  were  used  simply  to 
mark  the  time  of  the  dance;  and  in  this  constant  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  sound,  we  see  music  in  its  most  homo- 
geneous form.    The  Egyptians  had  a  lyre  with  three  strings. 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  367 

The  early  lyre  of  the  Greeks  had  four,  constituting  their 
tetrachord.  In  course  of  some  centuries  lyres  of  seven  and 
eight  strings  were  employed.  And,  by  the  expiration  of 
a  thousand  years,  they  had  advanced  to  their  "  great  sys- 
tem "  of  the  double  octave.  Through  all  which  changes 
there  of  course  arose  a  greater  heterogeneity  of  melody.  Si- 
multaneously there  came  into  use  the  different  modes — 
Dorian,  Ionian,  Phrygian,  iEolian,  and  Lydian — answering 
to  our  keys :  and  of  these  there  were  ultimately  fifteen.  As 
yet,  however,  there  was  but  little  heterogeneity  in  the  time 
of  their  music.  Instrumental  music  during  this  period  be- 
ing merely  the  accompaniment  of  vocal  music,  and  vocal 
music  being  completely  subordinated  to  words, — the  singer 
being  also  the  poet,  chanting  his  own  compositions,  and 
making  the  lengths  of  his  notes  agree  with  the  feet  of  his 
verses;  there  unavoidably  arose  a  tiresome  uniformity  of 
measure,  which,  as  Dr  Burney  says,  "  no  resources  of  mel- 
ody could  disguise."  Lacking  the  complex  rhythm  obtained 
by  our  equal  bars  and  unequal  notes,  the  only  rhythm  was 
that  produced  by  the  quantity  of  the  syllables,  and  was  of 
necessity  comparatively  monotonous.  And  further,  it  may 
be  observed  that  the  chant  thus  resulting,  being  like  recita- 
tive, was  much  less  clearly  differentiated  from  ordinary 
speech  than  is  our  modern  song.  Nevertheless,  considering 
the  extended  range  of  notes  in  use,  the  variety  of  modes, 
the  occasional  variations  of  time  consequent  on  changes 
of  metre,  and  the  multiplication  of  instruments,  we  see 
that  music  had,  towards  the  close  of  Greek  civilization,  at- 
tained to  considerable  heterogeneity:  not  indeed  as  com- 
pared with  our  music,  but  as  compared  with  that  which  pre- 
ceded it.  As  yet,  however,  there  existed  nothing 
but  melody:  harmony  was  unknown.  It  was  not  until 
Christian  church-music  had  reached  some  development, 
that  music  in  parts  was  evolved;  and  then  it  came  into  exist- 
ence through  a  very  unobtrusive  differentiation.  Difficult 
as  it  may  be  to  conceive,  d  priori,  how  the  advance  from 


368  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

melody  to  harmony  could  take  place  without  a  sudden  leap, 
it  is  none  the  less  true  that  it  did  so.  The  circumstance 
which  prepared  the  way  for  it,  was  the  employment  of  two 
choirs  singing  alternately  the  same  air.  Afterwards  it  be- 
came the  practice  (very  possibly  first  suggested  by  a  mis- 
take) for  the  second  choir  to  commence  before  the  first  had 
ceased;  thus  producing  a  fugue.  With  the  simple  airs  then 
in  use,  a  partially  harmonious  fugue  might  not  improbably 
thus  result;  and  a  very  partially  harmonious  fugue  satisfied 
the  ears  of  that  age,  as  we  know  from  still  preserved  exam- 
ples. The  idea  having  once  been  given,  the  composing  of 
airs  productive  of  f ugal  harmony  would  naturally  grow  up ; 
as  in  some  way  it  did  grow  up  out  of  this  alternate  choir- 
singing.  And  from  the  fugue  to  concerted  music  of 
two,  three,  four,  and  more  parts,  the  transition  was 
easy.  Without  pointing  out  in  detail  the  increas- 

ing complexity  that  resulted  from  introducing  notes  of 
various  lengths,  from  the  multiplication  of  keys,  from  the 
use  of  accidentals,  from  varieties  of  time,  from  modula- 
tions and  so  forth,  it  needs  but  to  contrast  music  as  it  is, 
with  music  as  it  was,  to  see  how  immense  is  the  increase  of 
heterogeneity.  We  see  this  if,  looking  at  music  in  its  ensem- 
ble, we  enumerate  its  many  different  genera  and  species — if 
we  consider  the  divisions  into  vocal,  instrumental,  and 
mixed ;  and  their  subdivisions  into  music  for  different  voices 
and  different  instruments — if  we  observe  the  many  forms  of 
sacred  music,  from  the  simple  hymn,  the  chant,  the  canon, 
motet,  anthem,  &c,  up  to  the  oratorio;  and  the  still  more 
numerous  forms  of  secular  music,  from  the  ballad  up  to  the 
serenata,  from  the  instrumental  solo  up  to  the  symphony. 
Again,  the  same  truth  is  seen  on  comparing  any  one  sample 
of  aboriginal  music  with  a  sample  of  modern  music — even 
an  ordinary  song  for  the  piano;  which  we  find  to  be  rela- 
tively highly  heterogeneous,  not  only  in  respect  of  the 
varieties  in  the  pitch  and  in  the  length  of  the  notes,  the  num- 
ber of  different  notes  sounding  at  the  same  instant  in  com- 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION   CONTINUED.  369 

pany  with  the  voice,  and  the  variations  of  strength  with 
which  they  are  sounded  and  sung,  but  in  respect  of  the 
changes  of  key,  the  changes  of  time,  the  changes  of  timbre 
of  the  voice,  and  the  many  other  modifications  of  expression. 
While  between  the  old  monotonous  dance-chant  and  a 
grand  opera  of  our  own  day,  with  its  endless  orchestral  com- 
plexities and  vocal  combinations,  the  contrast  in  hetero- 
geneity is  so  extreme  that  it  seems  scarcely  credible  that  the 
one  should  have  been  the  ancestor  of  the  other. 

§  126.  Were  they  needed,  many  further  illustrations 
might  be  cited.  Going  back  to  the  early  time  when  the 
deeds  of  the  god-king,  chanted  and  mimetically  represented 
in  dances  round  his  altar,  were  further  narrated  in  picture 
writings  on  the  walls  of  temples  and  palaces,  and  so  consti- 
tuted a  rude  literature,  we  might  trace  the  development  of 
Literature  through  phases  in  which,  as  in  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures, it  presents  in  one  work,  theology,  cosmogony,  history, 
biography,  civil  law,  ethics,  poetry ;  through  other  phases  in 
which,  as  in  the  Iliad,  the  religious,  martial,  historical,  the 
epic,  dramatic,  and  lyric  elements  are  similarly  commin- 
gled; down  to  its  present  heterogeneous  development,  in 
which  its  divisions  and  subdivisions  are  so  numerous  and 
varied  as  to  defy  complete  classification.  Or  we  might  track 
the  evolution  of  Science:  beginning  with  the  era  in  which 
it  was  not  yet  differentiated  from  Art,  and  was,  in  union 
with  Art,  the  handmaid  of  Religion;  passing  through  the 
era  in  which  the  sciences  were  so  few  and  rudimentary,  as  to 
be  simultaneously  cultivated  by  the  same  philosophers;  and 
ending  with  the  era  in  which  the  genera  and  species  are  so 
numerous  that  few  can  enumerate  them,  and  no  one  can 
adequately  grasp  even  one  genus.  Or  we  might  do  the  like 
with  Architecture,  with  the  Drama,  with  Dress.  But 
doubtless  the  reader  is  already  weary  of  illustrations;  and 
my  promise  has  been  amply  fulfilled.  I  believe  it  has  been 
shown  beyond  question,  that  that  which  the  German  physi- 


370  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

ologists  have  found  to  be  a  law  of  organic  development,  is 
a  law  of  all  development.  The  advance  from  the  simple  to 
the  complex,  through  a  process  of  successive  differentia- 
tions, is  seen  alike  in  the  earliest  changes  of  the  Universe 
to  which  we  can  reason  our  way  back,  and  in  the  earliest 
changes  which  we  can  inductively  establish;  it  is  seen  in 
the  geologic  and  climatic  evolution  of  the  Earth,  and  of 
every  single  organism  on  its  surface;  it  is  seen  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  Humanity,  whether  contemplated  in  the  civilized 
individual,  or  in  the  aggregation  of  races;  it  is  seen  in  the 
evolution  of  Society,  in  respect  alike  of  its  political,  its 
religious,  and  its  economical  organization;  and  it  is  seen  in 
the  evolution  of  all  those  endless  concrete  and  abstract  pro- 
ducts of  human  activity,  which  constitute  the  environment 
of  our  daily  life.  From  the  remotest  past  which  Science  can 
fathom,  up  to  the  novelties  of  yesterday,  an  essential  trait 
of  Evolution  has  been  the  transformation  of  the  homogene- 
ous into  the  heterogeneous. 

§  127.  Hence  the  general  formula  arrived  at  in  the  last 
chapter  needs  supplementing.  It  is  true  that  Evolution, 
under  its  primary  aspect,  is  a  change  from  a  less  coherent 
form  to  a  more  coherent  form,  consequent  on  the  dissipation 
of  motion  and  integration  of  matter ;  but  this  is  by  no  means 
the  whole  truth.  Along  with  a  passage  from  the  coherent 
to  the  incoherent,  there  goes  on  a  passage  from  the  uniform 
to  the  multiform.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  fact  wherever  Evo- 
lution is  compound;  which  it  is  in  the  immense  majority  of 
cases.  While  there  is  a  progressing  concentration  of  the 
aggregate,  either  by  the  closer,  approach  of  the  matter 
within  its  limits,  or  by  the  drawing  in  of  further  matter,  or 
by  both;  and  while  the  more  or  less  distinct  parts  into 
which  the  aggregate  divides  and  sub-divides  are  severally 
concentrating;  these  parts  are  also  becoming  unlike — un- 
like in  size,  or  in  form,  or  in  texture,  or  in  composition,  or  in 
several  or  all  of  these.    The  same  process  is  exhibited  by  the 


THE  LAW  OP  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  371 

whole  and  by  its  members.  The  entire  mass  is  integrating, 
and  simultaneously  differentiating  from  other  masses;  and 
each  member  of  it  is  also  integrating  and  simultaneously  dif- 
ferentiating from  other  members. 

Our  conception,  then,  must  unite  these  characters.  As 
we  now  understand  it,  Evolution  is  definable  as  a  change 
from  an  incoherent  homogeneity  to  a  coherent  heteroge- 
neity, accompanying  the  dissipation  of  motion  and  integra- 
tion of  matter. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE    LAW    OF    EVOLUTIOX    CONTINUED. 

§  128.  But  now,  does  this  generalization  express  the 
whole  truth?  Does  it  include  everything  essentially  char- 
acterizing Evolution  and  exclude  everything  else?  Does 
it  comprehend  all  the  phenomena  of  secondary  re-distribu- 
tion which  Compound  Evolution  presents,  without  compre- 
hending any  other  phenomena?  A  critical  examination  of 
the  facts  will  show  that  it  does  neither. 

Changes  from  the  less  heterogeneous  to  the  more  hetero- 
geneous, which  do  not  come  within  what  we  call  Evolution, 
occur  in  every  local  disease.  A  portion  of  the  body  in  which 
there  arises  a  morbid  growth,  displays  a  new  differentiation. 
Whether  this  morbid  growth  be,  or  be  not,  more  hetero- 
geneous than  the  tissues  in  which  it  is  seated,  is  not  the 
question.  The  question  is,  whether  the  organism  as  a  whole 
is,  or  is  not,  rendered  more  heterogeneous  by  the  addition 
of  a  part  unlike  every  pre-existing  part,  in  form,  or  com- 
position, or  both.  And  to  this  question  there  can  be  none 
but  an  affirmative  answer.  Again,  it  may  be  con- 

tended that  the  earlier  stages  of"  decompositon  in  a  dead 
body  involve  increase  of  heterogeneity.  Supposing  the 
chemical  changes  to  commence  in  some  parts  sooner  than  in 
other  parts,  as  they  commonly  do;  and  to  affect  different 
tissues  in  different  ways,  as  they  must;  it  seems  to  be  a 
necessary  admission  that  the  entire  body,  made  up  of  unde- 

composecl  parts  and  parts  decomposed  in  various  modes  and 

372 


THE   LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  373 

degrees,  lias  become  more  heterogeneous  than  it  was. 
Though  greater  homogeneity  will  be  the  eventual  result,  the 
immediate  result  is  the  opposite.  And  yet  this  immediate 
result  is  certainly  not  Evolution.  Other  instances 

are  furnished  by  social  disorders  and  disasters.  A  rebellion, 
which,  while  leaving  some  provinces  undisturbed,  develops 
itself  here  in  secret  societies,  there  in  public  demonstrations, 
and  elsewhere  in  actual  conflicts,  necessarily  renders  the 
society,  as  a  whole,  more  heterogeneous.  Or  when  a  dearth 
causes  commercial  derangement  with  its  entailed  bank- 
ruptcies, closed  factories,  discharged  operatives,  food-riots, 
incendiarisms ;  it  is  manifest  that,  as  a  large  part  of  the  com- 
munity retains  its  ordinary  organization  displaying  the 
usual  phenomena,  these  new  phenomena  must  be  regarded 
as  adding  to  the  complexity  previously  existing.  But  such 
changes,  so  far  from  constituting  further  Evolution,  are 
steps  towards  Dissolution. 

Clearly,  then,  the  definition  arrived  at  in  the  last  chapter 
is  an  imperfect  one.  The  changes  above  instanced  as  com- 
ing within  the  formula  as  it  now  stands,  are  so  obviously  un- 
like the  rest,  that  the  inclusion  of  them  implies  some  distinc- 
tion hitherto  overlooked.  Such  further  distinction  we  have 
now  to  supply. 

§  129.  At  the  same  time  that  Evolution  is  a  change 
from  the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous,  it  is  a  change 
from  the  indefinite  to  the  definite.  Along  with  an  advance 
from  simplicity  to  complexity,  there  is  an  advance  from 
confusion  to  order — from  undetermined  arrangement  to  de- 
termined arrangement.  Development,  no  matter  of  what 
kind,  exhibits  not  only  a  multiplication  of  unlike  parts,  but 
an  increase  in  the  distinctness  with  which  these  parts  are 
marked  off  from  one  another.  And  this  is  the  distinction 
sought.  For  proof,  it  needs  only  to  re-consider  the 

instances  given  above.  The  changes  constituting  disease, 
have  no  such  definiteness,   either  in  locality,   extent,   or 


374  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION   CONTINUED. 

outline,  as  the  changes  constituting  development.  Though 
certain  morbid  growths  are  more  common  in  some  parts  of 
the  body  than  in  others  (as  warts  on  the  hands,  cancer  on 
the  breasts,  tubercle  in  the  lungs),  yet  they  are  not  con- 
fined to  these  parts;  nor,  when  found  on  them,  are  they 
anything  like  so  precise  in  their  relative  positions  as  are 
the  normal  parts  around  them.  Their  sizes  are  extremely 
variable:  they  bear  no  such  constant  proportions  to  the 
body  as  organs  do.  Their  forms,  too,  are  far  less  specific 
than  organic  forms.  And  they  are  extremely  confused  in 
their  internal  structures.  That  is,  they  are  in  all  respects 
comparatively   indefinite.  The   like   peculiarity 

may  be  traced  in  decomposition.  Their  total  indefiniteness 
to  which  a  dead  body  is  finally  reduced,  is  a  state  towards 
which  the  putrefactive  changes  tend  from  their  commence- 
ment. The  advancing  destruction  of  the  organic  com- 
pounds, blurs  the  minute  structure — diminishes  its  dis- 
tinctness. From  the  portions  that  have  undergone  most 
decay,  there  is  a  gradual  transition  to  the  less  decayed 
portions.  And  step  by  step  the  lines  of  organization,  once 
so  precise,  disappear.  Similarly  with  social  changes 

of  an  abnormal  kind.  The  disaffection  which  initiates  a 
political  outbreak,  implies  a  loosening  of  those  ties  by  which 
citizens  are  bound  up  into  distinct  classes  and  sub-classes. 
Agitation,  growing  into  revolutionary  meetings,  fuses  ranks 
that  are  usually  separated.  Acts  of  insubordination  break 
through  the  ordained  limits  to  individual  conduct ;  and  tend 
to  obliterate  the  lines  previously  existing  between. those  in 
authority  and  those  beneath  them.  At  the  same  time,  by 
the  arrest  of  trade,  artizans  and  others  lose  their  occupa- 
tions; and  in  ceasing  to  be  functionally  distinguished,  merge 
into  an  indefinite  mass.  And  when  at  last  there  comes  posi- 
tive insurrection,  all  magisterial  and  official  powers,  all  class 
distinctions,  and  all  industrial  differences,  cease:  organized 
society  lapses  into  an  unorganized  aggregation  of  social 
units.     Similarly,  in  so  far  as  famines  and  pestilences  cause 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  375 

changes  from  order  towards  disorder,  they  cause  changes 
from  definite  arrangements  to  indefinite  arrangements. 

Thus,  then,  is  that  increase  of  heterogeneity  which  con- 
stitutes Evolution,  distinguished  from  that  increase  of 
heterogeneity  which  does  not  do  so.  Though  in  disease 
and  death,  individual  or  social,  the  earliest  modifications 
are  additions  to  the  pre-existing  heterogeneity,  they  are 
not  additions  to  the  pre-existing  definiteness.  They  begin 
from  the  very  outset  to  destroy  this  definiteness;  and 
gradually  produce  a  heterogeneity  that  is  indeterminate 
instead  of  determinate.  As  a  city,  already  multiform  in  its 
variously-arranged  structures  of  various  architecture,  may 
be  made  more  multiform  by  an  earthquake,  which  leaves 
part  of  it  standing  and  overthrows  other  parts  in  different 
ways  and  degrees,  but  is  at  the  same  time  reduced  from 
orderly  arrangement  to  disorderly  arrangement;  so  may 
organized  bodies  be  made  for  a  time  more  multiform  by 
changes  which  are  nevertheless  disorganizing  changes. 
And  in  the  one  case  as  in  another,  it  is  the  absence  of 
definiteness  which  distinguishes  the  multiformity  of  regres- 
sion from  the  multiformity  of  progression. 

If  advance  from  the  indefinite  to  the  definite  is  an 
essential,  characteristic  of  Evolution,  we  shall  of  course  find 
it  everywhere  displayed;  as  in  the  last  chapter  we  found 
the  advance  from  the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous. 
With  a  view  of  seeing  whether  it  is  so,  let  us  now  re-con- 
sider the  same  several  classes  of  facts. 

§  130.  Beginning,  as  before,  with  a  hypothetical  illus- 
tration, we  have  to  note  that  each  step  in  the  evolution  of 
the  Solar  System,  supposing  it  to  have  originated  from  dif- 
fused matter,  was  an  advance  towards  more  definite  struc- 
ture. At  first  irregular  in  shape  and  with  indistinct  margin, 
the  attenuated  substance,  as  it  concentrated  and  began  to  ro- 
tate, must  have  assumed  the  form  of  an  oblate  spheroid, 
which,  with  every  increase  of  density,  became  more  specific 


376  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

in  outline,  and  had  its  surface  more  sharply  marked  off  from 
the  surrounding  void.  Simultaneously,  the  constituent  por- 
tions of  nebulous  matter,  instead  of  moving  independently 
towards  their  common  centre  of  gravity  from  all  points, 
and  revolving  round  it  in  various  planes,  as  they  would  at 
first  do,  must  have  had  these  planes  more  and  more  merged 
into  a  single  plane,  that  became  less  variable  as  the  concen- 
tration progressed — became  gradually  defined. 

According  to  the  hypothesis,  change  from  indistinct 
characters  to  distinct  ones,  was  repeated  in  the  evolution  of 
planets  and  satellites;  and  may  in  them  be  traced  much 
further.  A  gaseous  spheroid  is  less  definitely  limited  than 
a  fluid  spheroid,  since  it  is  subject  to  larger  and  more  rapid 
undulations  of  surface,  and  to  much  greater  .distortions  of 
general  form ;  and,  similarly,  a  liquid  spheroid,  covered  as  it 
must  be  with  waves  of  various  magnitudes,  is  less  definite 
than  a  solid  spheroid.  The  decrease  of  oblateness  that  goes 
along  with  increase  of  integration,  brings  relative  definite- 
ness  of  other  elements.  A  planet  having  an  axis  inclined 
to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  must,  while  its  form  is  very 
oblate,  have  its  plane  of  rotation  much  disturbed  by  the 
attraction  of  external  bodies;  whereas  its  approach  to  a 
spherical  form,  involving  a  smaller  precessional  motion, 
involves  less  marked  variations  in  the  direction  of  its 
axis. 

"With  progressing  settlement  of  the  space-relations,  the 
force-relations  simultaneously  become  more  settled.  The 
exact  calculations  of  physical  astronomy,  show  us  how  defi- 
nite these  force-relations  now  are;  while  their  original 
indefiniteness  is  implied  in  the  extreme  difficulty,  if  not 
impossibility,  of  subjecting  the  nebular  hypothesis  to  mathe- 
matical treatment. 

§  131.  From  that  primitive  molten  state  of  the  Earth 
inferable  from  geological  data — a  state  accounted  for  by  the 
nebular   hypothesis   but   inexplicable   on   any   other — the 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  S77 

transition  to  its  existing  state  has  been  through  stages  in 
which  the  characters  became  more  determinate.  Besides 
being  comparatively  unstable  in  surface  and  contour,  a 
liquid  spheroid  is  less  specific  than  a  solid  spheroid  in  having 
no  fixed  distribution  of  parts.  Currents  of  molten  matter, 
though  kept  to  certain  general  circuits  by  the  conditions  of 
equilibrium,  cannot,  in  the  absence  of  solid  boundaries,  be 
precise  or  permanent  in  their  directions:  all  parts  must  be 
in  motion  with  respect  to  other  parts.  But  a  superficial 
solidification,  even  though  partial,  is  manifestly  a  step 
towards  the  establishment  of  definite  relations  of  position. 
In  a  thin  crust,  however,  frequently  ruptured  by  disturbing 
forces,  and  moved  by  every  tidal  undulation,  fixity  of  rela- 
tive position  can  be  but  temporary.  Only  as  the  crust 
thickens,  can  there  arise  distinct  and  settled  geographical 
relations.  Observe,  too,  that  when,  on  a  surface 

that  has  cooled  to  the  requisite  degree,  there  begins  to  pre- 
cipitate the  water  floating  above  as  vapour,  the  deposits 
cannot  maintain  any  definiteness  either  of  state  or  place. 
Falling  on  a  solid  envelope  not  thick  enough  to  preserve 
anything  beyond  slight  variations  of  level,  the  water  must 
form  shallow  pools  over  areas  sufficiently  cool  to  permit  con- 
densation ;  which  areas  must  pass  insensibly  into  others  that 
are  too  hot  for  this,  and  must  themselves  from  time  to  time 
be  so  raised  in  temperature  as  to  drive  off  the  water  lying 
on  them.  With  progressing  refrigeration,  however, — with 
a  growing  thickness  of  crust,  a  consequent  formation  of 
larger  elevations  and  depressions,  and  the  precipitation  of 
more  atmospheric  water,  there  comes  an  arrangement  of 
parts  that  is  comparatively  fixed  in  both  time  and  space; 
and  the  definiteness  of  state  and  position  increases,  until 
there  results  such  a  distribution  of  continents  and  oceans 
as  we  now  see — a  distribution  that  is  not  only  topographic- 
ally precise,  but  also  in  its  cliff-marked  coast-lines  presents 
divisions  of  land  from  water  more  definite  than  could  have 
existed  when  all  the  uncovered  areas  were  low  islands  with 
2G 


378  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

shelving  beaches,  over  which  the  tide  ebbed  and  flowed  to 
great  distances. 

Respecting  the  characteristics  classed  as  geological,  we 
may  draw  parallel  inferences.  While  the  Earth's  crnst  was 
thin,  mountain-chains  were  impossibilities:  there  could  not 
have  been  long  and  well-defined  axes  of  elevation,  with 
distinct  water-sheds  and  areas  of  drainage.  Moreover,  the 
denudation  of  small  islands  by  small  rivers,  and  by  tidal 
streams  both  feeble  and  narrow,  would  produce  no  clearly- 
marked  sedimentary  strata.  Confused  and  varying  masses 
of  detritus,  such  as  we  now  find  at  the  mouths  of  brooks, 
must  have  been  the  prevailing  formations.  And  these  could 
give  place  to  distinct  strata,  only  as  there  arose  continents 
and  oceans,  with  their  great  rivers,  long  coast-lines,  and 
wide-spreading  marine  currents. 

How  there  must  simultaneously  have  resulted  more 
definite  meteorological  characters,  need  not  be  pointed  out 
in  detail.  That  differences  of  climates  and  seasons  grew 
relatively  decided  as  the  heat  of  the  Sun  became  distin- 
guishable from  the  proper  heat  of  the  Earth;  and  that  the 
production  of  more  specific  conditions  in  each  locality  was 
aided  by  increasing  permanence  in  the  distribution  of  lands 
and  seas;  are  conclusions  sufficiently  obvious. 

§  132.  Let  us  turn  now  to  the  evidence  furnished  by 
organic  bodies.  In  place  of  deductive  illustrations  like  the 
foregoing,  we  shall  here  find  numerous  illustrations  which 
have  been  inductively  established,  and  are  therefore  less 
open  to  criticism.  The  process  of  mammalian  development, 
for  example,  will  supply  us  with  numerous  proofs  ready- 
described  by  embryologists. 

The  first  change  which  the  ovum  of  a  mammal  under- 
goes after  continued  segmentation  has  reduced  its  yelk  to  a 
mulberry-like  mass,  is  the  appearance  of  a  greater  definite- 
ness  in  the  peripheral  cells  of  this  mass;  each  of  which  ac- 
quires a  distinct  enveloping  membrane.     These  peripheral 


THE   LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  379 

cells,  vaguely  distinguished  from  the  internal  ones  by  their 
minuter  sub-division  as  well  as  by  their  greater  complete- 
ness, coalesce  to  form  the  blastoderm  or  germinal  mem- 
brane. Presently,  one  portion  of  this  membrane  is  ren- 
dered unlike  the  rest  by  the  accumulation  of  cells  still 
more  sub-divided,  which,  together,  form  an  opaque  roundish 
spot.  This  area  germinaliva,  as  it  is  called,  shades  off 
gradually  into  the  surrounding  parts  of  the  blastoderm ;  and 
the  area  pellucida,  subsequently  formed  in  the  midst  of  it, 
is  similarly  without  precise  margin.  The  "  primitive  trace," 
which  makes  its  appearance  in  the  centre  of  the  area  pellu- 
cida,  and  is  the  rudiment  of  that  vertebrate  axis  which  is  to 
be  the  fundamental  characteristic  of  the  mature  animal,  is 
shown  by  its  name  to  be  at  first  indefinite — a  mere  trace. 
Beginning  as  a  shallow  groove,  it  becomes  slowly  more  pro- 
nounced: its  sides  grow  higher;  their  summits  overlap, 
and  at  last  unite;  and  so  the  indefinite  groove  passes  into  a 
definite  tube,  forming  the  vertebral  canal.  In  this  vertebral 
canal  the  leading  divisions  of  the  brain  are  at  first  discern- 
ible only  as  slight  bulgings;  while  the  vertebrae  commence 
as  indistinct  modifications  of  the  tissue  bounding  the  canal. 
Simultaneously,  the  outer  surface  of  the  blastoderm  has 
been  differentiating  from  the  inner  surface :  there  has  arisen 
a  division  into  the  serous  and  mucous  layers — a  division 
at  the  outset  indistinct,  and  traceable  only  about  the  germi- 
nal area,  but  which  insensibly  spreads  throughout  nearly  the 
whole  germinal  membrane,  and  becomes  definite.  From 
the  mucous  layer,  the  development  of  the  alimentary  canal 
proceeds  as  that  of  the  vertebral  canal  does  from  the  serous 
layer.  Originally  a  smple  channel  along  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  embryonic  mass,  the  intestine  is  rendered  dis- 
tinct by  the  bending  down,  on  each  side,  of  ridges  which 
finally  join  to  form  a  tube — the  permanent  absorbing  sur- 
face is  by  degrees  cut  off  from  that  temporary  absorbing 
surface  with  which  it  was  continuous  and  uniform.  And  in 
an  analogous  manner  the  entire  embryo,  which  at  first  lies 


380  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

outspread  on  the  yelk-sac,  gradually  rises  up  from  it, 
and  by  the  infolding  of  its  ventral  region,  becomes  a  sepa- 
rate mass,  connected  with  the  yelk-sack  only  by  a  narrow 
duct. 

These  changes  through  which  the  general  structure  is 
marked  out  with  slowly-  increasing  precision,  are  paralleled 
in  the  evolution  of  each  organ.  The  heart  begins  as  a 
mere  aggregation  of  cells,  of  which  the  inner  liquefy  to 
form  blood,  while  the  outer  are  transformed  into  the  walls; 
and  when  thus  sketched  out,  the  heart  is  indefinite  not  only 
as  being  unlined  by  limiting  membrane,  but  also  as  being 
little  more  than  a  dilatation  of  the  central  blood-vessel. 
By  and  by  the  receiving  portion  of  the  cavity  becomes  dis- 
tinct from  the  propelling  portion.  Afterwards  there  be- 
gins to  grow  across  the  ventricle,  a  septum,  which  is,  how- 
ever, some  time  before  it  shuts  off  the  two  halves  from  each 
other;  while  the  later-formed  septum  of  the  auricle  remains 
incomplete  during  the  whole  of  foetal  life.  Again, 

the  liver  commences  by  multiplication  of  certain  cells  in  the 
wall  of  the  intestine.  The  thickening  produced  by  this 
multiplication  "  increases  so  as  to  form  a  projection  upon  the 
exterior  of  the  canal;  "  and  at  the  same  time  that  the  organ 
grows  and  becomes  distinct  from  the  intestine,  the  channels 
running  through  it  are  transformed  into  ducts  having  clear- 
ly-marked walls.  Similarly,  certain  cells  of  the  external 
coat  of  the  alimentary  canal  at  its  upper  portion,  accumulate 
into  lumps  or  buds  from  which  the  lungs  are  developed; 
and  these,  in  their  general  outlines  and  detailed  structure, 
acquire  distinctness  step  by  step. 

Changes  of  this  order  continue  long  after  birth;  and, 
in  the  human  being,  are  some  of  them  not  completed  till 
middle  life.  During  youth,  most  of  the  articular  surfaces 
of  the  bones  remain  rough  and  fissured — the  calcareous 
deposit  ending  irregularly  in  the  surrounding  cartilage. 
But  between  puberty  and  the  age  of  thirty,  these  articular 
surfaces   are   finished   off  into   smooth,   hard,   sharply-cut 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  381 

"  epiphyses."  Generally,  indeed,  we  may  say  that  increase 
of  definiteness  continues  when  there  has  ceased  to  be  any 
appreciable  increase  of  heterogeneity.  And  there  is  reason 
to  think  that  those  modifications  which  take  place  after 
maturity,  bringing  about  old  age  and  death,  are  modifica- 
tions of  this  nature;  since  they  cause  rigidity  of  structure, 
a  consequent  restriction  of  movement  and  of  functional 
pliability,  a  gradual  narrowing  of  the  limits  within  which 
the  vital  processes  go  on,  ending  in  an  organic  adjustment 
too  precise — too  narrow  in  its  margin  of  possible  variation  to 
permit  the  requisite  adaptation  to  changes  of  external  con- 
ditions. 

§  133.  To  prove  that  the  Earth's  Flora  and  Fauna, 
regarded  either  as  wholes  or  in  their  separate  species,  have 
progressed  in  definiteness,  is  no  more  possible  than  it  was 
to  prove  that  they  have  progressed  in  heterogeneity:  lack 
of  facts  being  an  obstacle  to  the  one  conclusion  as  to  the 
other.  If,  however,  we  allow  ourselves  to  reason  from  the 
hypothesis,  now  daily  rendered  more  probable,  that  every 
species  up  to  the  most  complex,  has  arisen  out  of  the  simplest 
through  the  accumulation  of  modifications  upon  modifica- 
tions, just  as  every  individual  arises;  we  shall  see  that  there 
must  have  been  a  progress  from  the  indeterminate  to  the 
determinate,  both  in  the  particular  forms  and  in  the  groups 
of  forms. 

We  may  set  out  with  the  significant  fact  that  the  lowest 
organisms  (which  are  analogous  in  structure  to  the  germs 
of  all  higher  ones)  have  so  little  definiteness  of  character 
that  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  decide  whether  they 
are  plants  or  animals.  Respecting  sundry  of  them  there  are 
unsettled  disputes  between  zoologists  and  botanists;  and  it 
is  proposed  to  group  them  into  a  separate  kingdom,  forming 
a  common  basis  to  the  animal  and  vegetal  kingdoms.  Note 
next  that  among  the  Protozoa,  extreme  indefiniteness  of 
shape  is  general.    In  sundry  shell-less  Rhizopods  the  form  is 


382  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

so  irregular  as  to  admit  of  no  description;  and  it  is  neither 
alike  in  any  two  individuals  nor  in  the  same  individual  at 
successive  moments.  By  aggregation  of  such  creatures,  are 
produced,  among  other  indefinite  bodies,  the  Sponges — 
bodies  that  are  indefinite  in  size,  in  contour,  in  internal 
arrangement.  As  further  showing  how  relatively  indeter- 
minate are  the  simplest  organisms,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  their  structures  vary  greatly  with  surrounding  con- 
ditions :  so  much  so  that,  among  the  Protozoa  and  Pro- 
tophyta,  many  forms  which  were  once  classed  as  distinct 
species,  and  even  as  distinct  genera,  are  found  to  be  merely 
varieties  of  one  species.  If  now  we  call  to  mind 

how  precise  in  their  attributes  are  the  highest  organisms — 
how  sharply  cut  their  outlines,  how  invariable  their  pro- 
portions, and  how  comparatively  constant  their  structures 
under  changed  conditions;  we  cannot  deny  that  greater 
definiteness  is  one  of  their  characteristics.  "We  must  admit 
that  if  they  have  been  evolved  out  of  lower  organisms,  an 
increase  of  definiteness  has  been  an  accompaniment  of  their 
evolution. 

That,  in  course  of  time,  species  have  become  more  sharp- 
ly marked  off  from  other  species,  genera  from  genera,  and 
orders  from  orders,  is  a  conclusion  not  admitting  of  a  more 
positive  establishment  than  the  foregoing;  and  must, 
indeed,  stand  or  fall  with  it.  If,  however,  species  and 
genera  and  orders  have  arisen  by  "  natural  selection,"  then, 
as  Mr.  Darwin  shows,  there  must  have  been  a  tendency  to 
divergence,  causing  the  contrasts  between  groups  to  be- 
come greater.  Disappearance  of  intermediate  forms,  less 
fitted  for  special  spheres  of  existence  than  the  extreme  forms 
they  connected,  must  have  made  the  differences  between 
the  extreme  forms  decided;  and  so,  from  indistinct  and 
unstable  varieties,  must  slowly  have  been  produced  distinct 
and  stable  species — an  inference  which  is  in  harmony  with 
what  we  know  respecting  races  of  men  and  races  of  domestic 
animals. 


THE   LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  383 

§  134.  The  successive  phases  through  which  societies 
pass,  very  obviously  display  the  progress  from  indetermi- 
nate arrangement  to  determinate  arrangement.  A  wan- 
dering tribe  of  savages,  being  fixed  neither  in  its  locality 
nor  in  its  internal  distribution,  is  far  less  definite  in  the 
relative  positions  of  its  parts  than  a  nation.  In  such  a  tribe 
the  social  relations  are  similarly  confused  and  unsettled. 
Political  authority  is  neither  well  established  nor  precise. 
Distinctions  of  rank  are  neither  clearly  marked  nor  im- 
passable. And  save  in  the  different  occupations  of  men  and 
women,  there  are  no  complete  industrial  divisions.  Only 
in  tribes  of  considerable  size,  which  have  enslaved  other 
tribes,  is  the  economical  differentiation  decided. 

Any  one  of  these  primitive  societies,  however,  that 
evolves,  becomes  step  by  step  more  specific.  Increasing  in 
size,  consequently  ceasing  to  be  so  nomadic,  and  restricted 
in  its  range  by  neighbouring  societies,  it  acquires,  after  pro- 
longed border  warfare,  a  settled  territorial  boundary.  The 
distinctions  between  the  royal  race  and  the  people,  eventual- 
ly amounts  in  the  popular  apprehension  to  a  difference  of 
nature.  The  warrior-class  attains  a  perfect  separation  from 
classes  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  or  other 
occupations  regarded  as  servile.  And  there  arises  a 
priesthood  that  is  defined  in  its  rank,  its  functions,  its 
privileges.  This  sharpness  of  definition,  growing 

both  greater  and  more  variously  exemplified  as  societies 
advance  to  maturity,  is  extremest  in  those  that  have  reached 
their  full  development  or  are  declining.  Of  ancient  Egypt 
we  read  that  its  social  divisions  were  precise  and  its  cus- 
toms rigid.  Recent  investigations  make  it  more  than  ever 
clear,  that  among  the  Assyrians  and  surrounding  peoples, 
not.  only  were  the  laws  unalterable,  but  even  the  minor 
habits,  dowm  to  those  of  domestic  routine,  possessed  a 
sacredness  which  insured  their  permanence.  In  India  at 
the  present  day,  the  unchangeable  distinctions  of  caste, 
not  less  than  the  constancy  in  modes  of  dress,  industrial 


3S±  THE  LAW   OF  EVOLUTION   CONTINUED. 

processes,  and  religious  observances,  show  us  how  fixed  are 
the  arrangements  where  the  antiquity  is  great.  Xor  does 
China,  with  its  long-settled  political  organization,  its  elabo- 
rate and  precise  conventions,  and  its  unprogressive  litera- 
ture, fail  to  exemplify  the  same  truth. 

The  successive  phases  of  our  own  and  adjacent  societies, 
furnish  facts  somewhat  different  in  kind  but  similar  in 
meaning.  Originally,  monarchical  authority  was  more  ba- 
ronial, and  baronial  authority  more  monarchical,  than  after- 
wards. Between  modern  priests  and  the  priests  of  old  times, 
who  while  officially  teachers  of  religion  were  also  warriors, 
judges,  architects,  there  is  a  marked  difference  in  defi- 
niteness  of  function.  And  among  the  people  engaged  in 
productive  occupations,  the  like  contrasts  would  be  found 
to  hold:  the  industrial  class  has  become  more  distinct 
from  the  military;  and  its  various  divisions  from  one 
another.  A  history  of  our  constitution,  reminding 

us  how  the  powers  of  King,  Lords,  and  Commons,  have 
been  gradually  settled,  would  clearly  exhibit  analogous 
changes.  Countless  facts  bearing  the  like  construction, 
would  meet  us  were  we  to  trace  the  development  of  legis- 
lation; in  the  successive  stages  of  which,  we  should  find 
statutes  gradually  rendered  more  specific  in  their  appli- 
cations to  particular  cases.  *Even  now  we  see  that  each 
new  law,  beginning  as  a  vague  proposition,  is,  in  the  course 
of  enactment,  elaborated  into  specific  clauses;  and  further 
that  only  after  its  interpretation  has  been  established  by' 
judges'  decisions  in  courts  of  justice,  does  it  reach  its  final 
definiteness.  From  the  annals  of  minor  institu- 

tions like  evidence  may  be  gathered.  Religious,  charitable, 
literary,  and  all  other  societies,  starting  with  ends  and  meth- 
ods roughly  sketched  out  and  easily  modifiable,  show  us 
how,  by  the  accumulation  of  rules  and  precedents,  the  pur- 
poses become  more  distinct  and  the  modes  of  action  more 
restricted;  until  at  last  decay  follows  a  fixity  which  admits 
of  no  adaptation  to  new  conditions.     Should  it  be  objected 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  385 

that  among  civilized  nations  there  are  examples  of  de- 
creasing definiteness,  (instance  the  breaking  down  of  limits 
between  ranks,)  the  reply  is,  that  such  apparent  exceptions 
are  the  accompaniments  of  a  social  metamorphosis — a 
change  from  the  military  or  predatory  type  of  social  struc- 
ture, to  the  industrial  or  mercantile  type,  during  which  the 
old  lines  of  organization  are  disappearing  and  the  new 
ones  becoming  more  marked. 

§  135.  All  organized  results  of  social  action — all  super- 
organic  structures,  pass  through  parallel  phases.  Being,  as 
they  are,  objective  products  of  subjective  processes,  they 
must  display  corresponding  changes;  and  that  they  do  this, 
the  cases  of  Language,  of  Science,  of  Art,  clearly  prove. 

Strike  out  from  our  sentences  everything  but  nouns  and 
verbs,  and  there  stands  displayed  the  vagueness  charac- 
terizing undeveloped  tongues.  When  we  note  how  each 
inflection  of  a  verb,  or  addition  by  which  the  case  of  a  noun 
is  marked,  serves  to  limit  the  conditions  of  action  or  of  ex- 
istence, we  see  that  these  constituents  of  speech  enable  men 
to  communicate  their  thoughts  more  precisely.  That  the 
application  of  an  adjective  to  a  noun  or  an  adverb  to  a  verb, 
narrows  the  class  of  things  or  changes  indicated,  implies 
that  the  additional  word  serves  to  make  the  proposition 
more  distinct.    And  similarly  with  other  parts  of  speech. 

The  like  effect  results  from  the  multiplication  of  words 
of  each  order.  When  the  names  for  objects,  and  acts,  and 
qualities,  are  but  few,  the  range  of  each  is  proportionately 
wide,  and  its  meaning  therefore  unspecific.  The  similes  and 
metaphors  so  much  used  by  aboriginal  races,  indirectly 
and  imperfectly  suggest  ideas,  which  they  cannot  express 
directly  and  perfectly  from  lack  of  words.  Or  to  take  a 
case  from  ordinary  life,  if  we  compare  the  speech  of  the 
peasant,  who,  out  of  his  limited  vocabulary,  can  describe 
the  contents  of  the  bottle  he  carries,  only  as  "  doctor's- 
stufT  "  which  he  has  got  for  his  "  sick  "  wife,  with  the 


336  THE  LAW  0F  EVOLUTION   CONTINUED. 

speech  of  the  physician,  who  tells  those  educated  like  him- 
self the  particular  composition  of  the  medicine,  and  the  par- 
ticular disorder  for  which  he  has  prescribed  it;  we  have 
vividly  brought  home  to  us,  the  precision  which  language 
gains  by  the  multiplication  of  terms. 

Again,  in  the  course  of  its  evolution,  each  tongue  ac- 
quires a  further  accuracy  through  processes  which  fix  the 
meaning  of  each  word.  Intellectual  intercourse  slowly  di- 
minishes  laxity  of  expression.  By  and  by  dictionaries  give 
definitions.  And  eventually,  among  the  most  cultivated,  in- 
defmiteness  is  not  tolerated,  either  in  the  terms  used  or  in 
their  grammatical  combinations. 

Once  more,  languages  considered  as  wholes,  become 
gradually  more  sharply  marked  off  from  one  another,  and 
from  their  common  parent:  as  witness  in  early  times  the 
divergence  from  the  same  root  of  two  languages  so  unlike 
as  Greek  and  Latin,  and  in  later  times  the  development  of 
three  Latin  dialects  into  Italian,  French,  and  Spanish. 

§  136.  In  his  "  History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences,"  Dr. 
AY  he  well  says  that  the  Greeks  failed  in  physical  philosophy 
because  their  "  ideas  were  not  distinct,  and  apropriate  to 
the  facts."  I  do  not  quote  this  remark  for  its  luminous- 
ness;  since  it  would  be  equally  proper  to  ascribe  the  in- 
distinctness and  inappropriateness  of  their  ideas  to  the  im- 
perfection of  their  physical  philosophy;  but  I  quote  it 
because  it  serves  as  good  evidence  of  the  indefiniteness  of 
primitive  science.  The  same  work  and  its  fellow  on  "  The 
Philosophy  of  the  Inductive  Sciences,"  supply  other  evi- 
dences equally  good,  because  equally  independent  of  any 
such  hypothesis  as  is  here  to  be  established.  Respecting 
mathematics,  we  have  the  fact  that  geometrical  theorems 
grew  out  of  empirical  methods;  and  that  these  theorems,  at 
first  isolated,  did  not  acquire  the  clearness  which  complete 
demonstration  gives,  until  they  were  arranged  by  Euclid 
into  a  series  of  dependent  propositions.     At  a  later  period, 


THE  LAW   OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  387 

the  same  general  truth  was  exemplified  in  the  progress 
from  the  "  method  of  exhaustion  "  and  the  "  method  of 
indivisibles"  to  the  "method  of  limits;"  which  is  the 
central  idea  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus.  In  early 

mechanics,  too,  may  be  traced  a  dim  perception  that  action 
and  re-action  are  equal  and  opposite ;  though,  for  ages  after, 
this  truth  remained  unformulated.  And  similarly,  the  prop- 
erty of  inertia,  though  not  distinctly  comprehended  until 
Kepler  lived,  was  vaguely  recognized  long  previously. 
"  The  conception  of  statical  force,"  "  was  never  presented 
in  a  distinct  form  till  the  works  of  Archimedes  appeared;  " 
and  "  the  conception  of  accelerating  force  was  confused,  in 
the  mind  of  Kepler  and  his  contemporaries,  and  did  not 
become  clear  enough  for  purposes  of  sound  scientific  reason- 
ing before  the  succeeding  century."  To  which  specific  as- 
sertions may  be  added  the  general  remark,  that  "  terms 
which  originally,  and  before  the  laws  of  motion  were  fully 
known,  were  used  in  a  very  vague  and  fluctuating  sense,  were 
afterwards  limited  and  rendered  precise."  When 

we  turn  from  abstract  scientific  conceptions  to  the  con- 
crete provisions  of  science,  of  which  astronomy  furnishes 
numerous  examples,  a  like  contrast  is  visible.  The  times 
at  which  celestial  phenomena  will  occur,  have  been  pre- 
dicted with  ever-increasing  accuracy.  Errors  once  amount- 
ing to  days  are  now  diminished  to  seconds.  The  corre- 
spondence between  the  real  and  supposed  forms  of  orbits, 
has  been  gradually  rendered  more  precise.  Originally 
thought  circular,  then  epicyclical,  then  elliptical,  orbits  are 
now  ascertained  to  be  curves  which  always  deviate  from 
perfect  ellipses,  and  are  ever  undergoing  changes. 

But  the  general  advance  of  Science  in  definiteness,  is 
best  shown  by  the  contrast  between  its  qualitative  stage, 
and  its  quantitative  stage.  At  first  the  facts  ascertained 
were,  that  between  such  and  such  phenomena  some  connex- 
ion existed— that  the  appearances  a  and  b  always  occurred 
together  or  in  succession ;  but  it  was  known  neither  what  was 


388  THE  LAW   OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED. 

the  nature  of  the  relation  between  a  and  b,  nor  how  much  of 
a  accompanied  so  much  of  b.  The  development  of  Science 
has  in  part  been  the  reduction  of  these  vague  connexions  to 
distinct  ones.  Most  relations  have  been  classed  as  me- 
chanical, chemical,  thermal,  electric,  magnetic,  &c. ;  and  we 
have  learnt  to  infer  the  amounts  of  the  antecedents  and  con- 
sequents from  each  other  with  exactness.  Of 
illustrations,  some  furnished  by  physics  have  been  given; 
and  from  other  sciences  plenty  may  be  added.  AVe  have 
positively  ascertained  the  constituents  of  numerous  com- 
pounds which  our  ancestors  could  not  analyze,  and  of  a  far 
greater  number  which  they  never  even  saw;  and  the  com- 
bining equivalents  of  these  elements  are  accurately  calcu- 
lated. Physiology  shows  advance  from  qualitative  to  quan- 
titative prevision  in  the  weighing  and  measuring  of  organic 
products,  and  of  the  materials  consumed;  as  well  as  in 
measurement  of  functions  by  the  spirometer  and  the  sphyg- 
mograph.  By  Pathology  it  is  displayed  in  the  use  of  the 
statistical  method  of  determining  the  sources  of  diseases, 
and  the  effects  of  treatment.  In  Botany  and  Zoology,  the 
numerical  comparisons  of  Floras  and  Faunas,  leading  to 
specific  conclusions  respecting  their  sources  and  distribu- 
tions, illustrate  it.  And  in  Sociology,  questionable  as  are 
the  conclusions  usually  drawn  from  the  classified  sum-totals 
of  the  census,  from  Board-of -Trade  tables,  and  from  crimi- 
nal returns,  it  must  be  admitted  that  these  imply  a  progress 
towards  more  accurate  conceptions  of  social  phenomena. 

That  an  essential  characteristic  of  advancing  Science  is 
increase  in  defmiteness,  appears  indeed  almost  a  truism, 
when  we  remember-that  Science  may  be  described  as  definite 
knowledge,  in  contradistinction  to  that  indefinite  knowledge 
possessed  by  the  uncultured.  And  if,  as  we  cannot  question, 
Science  has,  in  the  course  of  ages,  been  evolved  out  of  this 
indefinite  knowledge  of  the  uncultured;  then,  the  gradual 
acquirement  of  that  great  defmiteness  which  now  distin- 
guishes it,  must  have  been  a  leading  trait  in  its  evolution. 


THE   LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  389 

§  137.  The  Arts,  industrial  and  aesthetic,  supply  illus- 
trations perhaps  still  more  striking.  Flint  implements  of 
the  kind  recently  found  in  certain  of  the  later  geologic  de- 
posits, show  the  extreme  want  of  precision  in  men's  first 
handiworks.  Though  a  great  advance  on  these  is  seen  in 
the  tools  and  weapons  of  existing  savage  tribes,  yet  an  inex- 
actness in  forms  and  fittings  distinguishes  such  tools  and 
weapons  from  those  of  civilized  races.  In  a  smaller  degree, 
the  productions  of  the  less-advanced  nations  are  character- 
ized by  like  defects.  A  Chinese  junk,  with  all  its  con- 
tained furniture  and  appliances,  nowhere  presents  a  line 
that  is  quite  straight,  a  uniform  curve,  or  a  true  sur- 
face. Xor  do  the  utensils  and  machines  of  our 
ancestors  fail  to  exhibit  a  similar  inferiority  to  our  own. 
An  antique  chair,  an  old  fireplace,  a  lock  of  the  last  century, 
or  almost  any  article  of  household  use  that  has  been  pre- 
served for  a  few  generations,  proves  by  contrast  how  greatly 
the  industrial  products  of  our  time  excel  those  of  the  past  in 
their  accuracy.  Since  planing  machines  have  been  invent- 
ed, it  has  become  possible  to  produce  absolutely  straight 
lines,  and  surfaces  so  truly  level  as  to  be  air-tight  when  ap- 
plied to  each  other.  While  in  the  dividing-engine  of 
Troughton,  in  the  micrometer  of  Whitworth,  and  in  micro- 
scopes that  show  fifty  thousand  divisions  to  the  inch,  we  have 
an  exactness  as  far  exceeding  that  reached  in  the  works  of 
our  great-grandfathers,  as  theirs  exceeded  that  of  the  abo- 
riginal celt-makers. 

In  the  Fine  Arts  there  has  been  a  parallel  progress. 
From  the  rudely-carved  and  painted  idols  of  savages, 
through  the  early  sculptures  characterized  by  limbs  with- 
out muscular  detail,  wooden-looking  drapery,  and  faces  de- 
void of  individuality,  up  to  the  later  studies  of  the  Greeks 
or  some  of  those  now  produced,  the  increased  accuracy  of 
representation  is  conspicuous.  Compare  the  mural  paint- 
ings of  the  Egyptians  with  the  paintings  of  mediaeval 
Europe,   or  these  with  modern  paintings,   and  the  more 


390  THE   LAWS  OF  EVOLUTION   CONTINUED. 

precise  rendering  of  the  appearances  of  objects  is  mani- 
fest. It  is  the  same  with  fiction  and  the  drama. 
In  the  marvellous  tales  current  among  Eastern  nations,  in 
the  romantic  legends  of  feudal  Europe,  as  well  as  in  the 
mystery-plays  and  those  immediately  succeeding  them,  we 
see  great  want  of  correspondence  to  the  realities  of  life; 
alike  in  the  predominance  of  supernatural  events,  in  the 
extremely  improbable  coincidences,  and  in  the  vaguely- 
indicated  personages.  Along  with  social  advance,  there 
has  been  a  progressive  diminution  of  unnaturalness — an 
approach  to  truth  of  representation.  And  now,  novels  and 
plays  are  applauded  in  proportion  to  the  fidelity  with  which 
they  exhibit  individual  characters;  improbabilities,  like  the 
impossibilities  which  preceded  them,  are  disallowed;  and 
there  is  even  an  incipient  abandonment  of  those  elaborate 
plots  which  life  rarely  if  ever  furnishes. 

§  138.  It  would  be  easy  to  accumulate  evidences  of 
other  kinds.  The  progress  from  myths  and  legends,  ex- 
treme in  their  misrepresentations,  to  a  history  that  has  slowly 
become,  and  is  still  becoming,  more  accurate;  the  estab- 
lishment of  settled  systematic  methods  of  doing  things, 
instead  of  the  indeterminate  ways  at  first  pursued — these 
might  be  enlarged  upon  in  further  exemplification  of  the 
general  law.  But  the  basis  of  induction  is  already  wide 
enough.  Proof  that  all  Evolution  is  from  the  indefinite  to 
the  definite,  we  find  to  be  not  less  abundant  than  proof  that 
all  Evolution  is  from  the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous. 

It  should,  however,  be  added  that  this  advance  in  defi- 
niteness  is  not  a  primary  but  a  secondary  phenomenon — is 
a  result  incidental  on  other  changes.  The  transformation  of 
a  whole  that  was  originally  diffused  and  uniform  into  a  con- 
centrated combination  of  multiform  parts,  implies  progres- 
sive separation  both  of  the  whole  from  its  environment  and 
of  the  parts  from  one  another.  While  this  is  going  on  there 
must  be  indistinctness.     Only  as  the  whole  gains  density, 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONTINUED.  391 

does  it  become  sharply  marked  off  from  the  space  or  matter 
lying  outside  of  it;  and  only  as  each  separated  division 
draws  into  its  mass  those  peripheral  portions  which  are  at 
first  imperfectly  disunited  from  the  peripheral  portions  of 
neighbouring  divisions,  can  it  acquire  anything  like  a  precise 
outline.  That  is  to  say,  the  increasing  definiteness  is  a  con- 
comitant of  the  increasing  consolidation,  general  and  local. 
While  the  secondary  re-distributions  are  ever  adding  to  the 
heterogeneity,  the  primary  re-distribution,  while  augment- 
ing the  integration,  is  incidentally  giving  distinctness  to  the 
increasingly-unlike  parts  as  well  as  to  the  aggregate  of 
them. 

But  though  this  universal  trait  of  Evolution  is  a  neces- 
sary accompaniment  of  the  traits  set  forth  in  preceding- 
chapters,  it  is  not  expressed  in  the  words  used  to  describe 
them.  It  is  therefore  needful  further  to  modify  our  for- 
mula. The  more  specific  idea  of  Evolution  now  reached  is — 
a  change  from  an  indefinite,  incoherent  homogeneity,  to  a 
definite  coherent  heterogeneity,  accompanying  the  dissipa- 
tion of  motion  and  integration  of  matter. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED. 

§  139.  The  conception  of  Evolution  elaborated  in  the 
foregoing  chapters,  is  still  incomplete.  True  though  it  is 
it  is  not  the  whole  truth.  The  transformations  which  all 
things  undergo  during  the  ascending  phases  of  their  exist- 
ence, we  have  contemplated  under  three  aspects;  and  by 
uniting  these  three  aspects  as  simultaneously  presented,  we 
have  formed  an  approximate  idea  of  the  transformations. 
But  there  are  concomitant  changes  about  which  nothing 
has  yet  been  said;  and  which,  though  less  conspicuous,  are 
no  less  essential. 

For  thus  far  we  have  attended  only  to  the  re-distribution 
of  Matter,  neglecting  the  accompanying  re-distribution  of 
Motion.  Distinct  or  tacit  reference  has,  indeed,  repeatedly 
been  made  to  the  dissipation  of  Motion,  that  goes  on  along 
with  the  concentration  of  Matter;  and  were  all  Evolution 
absolutely  simple,  the  total  fact  would  be  contained  in  the 
proposition  that  as  Motion  dissipates  Matter  concentrates. 
But  while  we  have  recognized  the  liltimate  re-distribu- 
tion of  the  Motion,  we  have  passed  over  its  proximate  re-dis- 
tribution. Though  something  has  from  time  to  time  been 
said  about  the  escaping  motion,  nothing  has  been  said 
about  the  motion  that  does  not  escape.  In  proportion  as 
Evolution  becomes  compound — in  proportion  as  an  aggre- 
gate retains,  for  a  considerable  time,  such  a  quantity  of 

motion  as  permits  secondarv  re-distributions  of  its  com- 

392 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED.  393 

ponent  matter,  there  necessarily  arise  secondary  re-distri- 
butions of  its  retained  motion.  As  fast  as  the  parts  are 
transformed,  there  goes  on  a  transformation  of  the  sensi- 
ble or  insensible  motion  possessed  by  the  parts.  The  parts 
cannot  become  progressively  integrated,  either  individually 
or  as  a  combination,  without  their  motions,  individual  or 
combined,  becoming  more  integrated.  There  cannot  arise 
among  the  parts  heterogeneities  of  size,  of  form,  of  qual- 
ity, without  there  also  arising  heterogeneities  in  the  amounts 
and  directions  of  their  motions,  or  the  motions  of  their 
molecules.  And  increasing  definiteness  of  the  parts  implies 
increasing  definiteness  of  their  motions.  In  short,  the 
rhythmical  actions  going  on  in  each  aggregate,  must  dif- 
ferentiate and  integrate  at  the  same  time  that  the  structure 
does  so. 

The  general  theory  of  this  re-distribution  of  the  retained 
motion,  must  here  be  briefly  stated.  Properly  to  supple- 
ment our  conception  of  Evolution  under  its  material  aspect 
by  a  conception  of  Evolution  under  its  dynamical  aspect,  we 
have  to  recognize  the  source  of  the  integrated  motions  that 
arise  and  to  see  how  their  increased  multiformity  and  defi- 
niteness are  necessitated.  If  Evolution  is  a  passage 
of  matter  from  a  diffused  to  an  aggregated  state — if  while 
the  dispersed  units  are  losing  part  of  the  insensible  motion 
which  kept  them  dispersed,  there  arise  among  coherent 
masses  of  them,  any  sensible  motions  with  respect  to  one 
another;  then  this  sensible  motion  must  previously  have 
existed  in  the  form  of  insensible  motion  among  the  units.. 
If  concrete  matter  arises  by  the  aggregation  of  diffused 
matter,  then  concrete  motion  arises  by  the  aggregation  of 
diffused  motion.  That  which  comes  into  existence  as  the 
movement  of  masses,  implies  the  cessation  of  an  equivalent 
molecular  movement.  While  we  must  leave  in  the  shape  of 
hypothesis  the  belief  that  the  celestial  motions  have  thus 
originated,  we  may  see,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  this  is  the 
genesis  of  all  sensible  motions  on  the  Earth's  surface.     As 

27 


394  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED. 

before  shown  (§  69),  the  denudation  of  lands  and  deposit 
of  new  strata,  are  effected  by  water  in  the  course  of  its  de- 
scent to  the  sea,  or  during  the  arrest  of  those  undulations 
produced  on  it  by  winds;  and,  as  before  shown,  the  eleva- 
tion of  water  to  the  height  whence  it  fell,  is  due  to  solar 
heat,  as  is  also  the  genesis  of  those  aerial  currents  which 
drift  it  about  when  evaporated  and  agitate  its  surface  when 
condensed.  That  is  to  say,  the  molecular  motion  of  the 
etherial  medium  is  transformed  into  the  motion  of  gases, 
thence  into  the  motion  of  liquids,  and  thence  into  the  mo- 
tion of  solids — stages  in  each  of  which  a  certain  amount 
of  molecular  motion  is  lost  and  an  equivalent  motion  of 
masses  gained.  It  is  the  same  with  organic  movements. 
Certain  rays  issuing  from  the  Sun,  enable  the  plant  to 
reduce  special  elements  existing  in  gaseous  combination 
around  it,  to  a  solid  form — enable  the  plant,  that  is,  to 
grow  and  carry  on  its  functional  changes.  And  since 
growth,  equally  with  circulation  of  sap,  is  a  mode  of  sen- 
sible motion,  while  those  rays  which  have  been  expended 
in  generating  it  consist  of  insensible  motions,  we  have 
here,  too,  a  transformation  of  the  kind  alleged.  Animals, 
derived  as  their  forces  are,  directly  or  indirectly,  from 
plants,  carry  this  transformation  a  step  further.  The  au- 
tomatic movements  of  the  viscera,  together  with  the 
voluntary  movements  of  the  limbs  and  body  at  large,  arise 
at  the  expense  of  certain  molecular  movements  through- 
out the  nervous  and  muscular  tissues;  and  these  originally 
arose  at  the  expense  of  certain  other  molecular  movements 
propagated  by  the  Sun  to  the  Earth;  so  that  both  the 
structural  and  functional  motions  which  organic  Evolution 
displays,  are  motions  of  aggregates  generated  by  the  arrest- 
ed motions  of  units.  Even  with  the  aggregates  of  these 
aggregates  the  same  rule  holds.  For  among  associated  men, 
the  progress  is  ever  towards  a  merging  of  individual  ac- 
tions in  the  actions  of  corporate  bodies.  While,  then,  dur- 
ing Evolution,  the  escaping  motion  becomes,  by  perpetual- 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED.  395 

ly  widening  dispersion,  more  disintegrated,  the  motion  that 
is  for  a  time  retained,  becomes  more  integrated;  and  so, 
considered  dynamically,  Evolntion  is  a  decrease  in  the  rela- 
tive movements  of  parts  and  an  increase  in  the  relative 
movements  of  wholes — using  the  words  parts  and  wholes 
in  their  most  general  senses.  The  advance  is  from  the 
motions  of  simple  molecules  to  the  motions  of  compound 
molecules ;  from  molecular  motions  to  the  motions  of  masses ; 
and  from  the  motions  of  smaller  masses  to  the  motions  of 
larger  masses.  The  accompanying  change  towards 

greater  multiformity  among  the  retained  motions,  takes 
place  under  the  form  of  an  increased  variety  of  rhythms. 
We  have  already  seen  that  all  motion  is  rhythmical,  from 
the  infinitesimal  vibrations  of  infinitesimal  molecules,  up 
to  those  vast  oscillations  between  perihelion  and  aphelion 
performed  by  vast  celestial  bodies.  And  as  the  contrast 
between  these  extreme  cases  suggests,  a  multiplication  of 
rhythms  must  accompany  a  multiplication  in  the  degrees 
and  modes  of  aggregation,  and  in  the  relations  of  the  aggre- 
gated masses  to  incident  forces.  The  degree  or  mode  of 
aggregation  will  not,  indeed,  affect- the  rate  or  extent  of 
rhythm  where  the  incident  force  increases  as  the  aggregate 
increases,  which  is  the  case  with  gravitation:  here  the  only 
cause  of  variation  in  rhythm,  is  difference  of  relation  to  the 
incident  forces;  as  we  see  in  a  pendulum,  which,  though 
unaffected  in  its  movements  by  a  change  in  the  weight  of 
the  bob,  alters  its  rate  of  oscillation  when  taken  to  the 
equator.  But  in  all  cases  where  the  incident  forces  do  not 
vary  as  the  masses,  every  new  order  of  aggregation  initiates 
a  new  order  of  rhythm :  witness  the  conclusion  drawn  from 
the  recent  researches  into  radiant  heat  and  light,  that  the 
molecules  of  different  gases  have  different  rates  of  undula- 
tion. So  that  increased  multiformity  in  the  arrangement  of 
matter,  necessarily  generates  increased  multiformity  of 
rhythm;  both  through  increased  variety  in  the  sizes  and 
forms  of  aggregates,  and  through  increased  variety  in  their 


396  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED. 

relations  to  the  forces  which  move  them.  That 

these  motions  as  they  become  more  integrated  and  more 
heterogeneous,  must  become  more  definite,  is  a  proposition 
that  need  not  detain  us.  In  proportion  as  any  part  of  an 
evolving  whole  segregates  and  consolidates,  and  in  so  doing 
loses  the  relative  mobility  of  its  components,  its  aggregate 
motion  must  obviously  acquire  distinctness. 

Here,  then,  to  complete  our  conception  of  Evolution,  we 
have  to  contemplate  throughout  the  Cosmos,  these  meta- 
morphoses of  retained  motion  that  accompany  the  meta- 
morphoses of  component  matter.  We  may  do  this  with 
comparative  brevity:  the  reader  having  now  become  so  far 
familiar  with  the  mode  of  looking  at  the  facts,  that  less  illus- 
tration will  suffice.  To  save  space,  it  will  be  convenient  to 
deal  with  the  several  aspects  of  the  metamorphoses  at  the 
same  time. 

§  140.  Dispersed  matter  moving,  as  we  see  it  in  a  spiral 
nebula,  towards  the  common  centre  of  gravity,  from  all 
points  at  all  distances  with  all  degrees  of  indirectness,  must 
carry  into  the  nebulous  mass  eventually  formed,  innumera- 
ble momenta  contrasted  in  their  amounts  and  directions.  As 
the  integration  progresses,  such  parts  of  these  momenta  as 
conflict  are  mutually  neutralized,  and  dissipated  as  heat. 
The  out-standing  rotatory  motion,  at  first  having  unlike 
angular  velocities  at  the  periphery  and  at  various  distances 
from  the  centre,  has  its  differences  of  angular  velocity 
gradually  reduced;  advancing  towards  a  final  state,  now 
nearly  reached  by  the  Sun,  in  which  the  angular  ve- 
locity of  the  whole  mass  is  the  same — in  which  the  motion 
is  integrated.  So,  too,  with  each  planet  and  satel- 

lite. Progress  from  the  motion  of  the  nebulous  ring,  inco- 
herent and  admitting  of  much  relative  motion  within  its 
mass,  to  the  motion  of  a  dense  spheroid,  is  progress  to  a  mo- 
tion that  is  completely  integrated.  The  rotation,  and  the 
translation  through  space,  severally  become  one  and  indivis- 


THE  LAW   OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED.  397 

ible.       •  Meanwhile,  there  goes  on  that  further  in- 

tegration by  which  the  motions  of  all  the  parts  of  the  Solar 
System  are  rendered  mutually  dependent.  Locally  in  each 
planet  and  its  satellites,  and  generally  in  the  Sun  and  the 
planets,  we  have  a  system  of  simple  and  compound  rhythms, 
with  periodic  and  secular  variations,  forming  together  an 
integrated  set  of  movements. 

The  matter  which,  in  its  original  diffused  state,  had 
motions  that  were  confused,  indeterminate,  or  without 
sharply-marked  distinctions,  has,  during  the  evolution  of 
the  Solar  System,  acquired  definitely  heterogeneous  mo- 
tions. The  periods  of  revolution  of  all  the  planets  and  satel- 
lites are  unlike;  as  are  also  their  times  of  rotation.  Out  of 
these  definitely  heterogeneous  motions  of  a  simple  kind, 
arise  others  that  are  complex,  but  still  definite; — as  those 
produced  by  the  revolutions  of  satellites  compounded  with 
the  revolutions  of  their  primaries;  as  those  of  which  pre- 
cession is  the  result;  and  as  those  which  are  known  as  per- 
turbations. Each  additional  complexity  of  structure  has 
caused  additional  complexity  of  movements ;  but  still,  a  defi- 
nite complexity,  as  is  shown  by  having  calculable  results. 

§  141.  While  the  Earth's  surface  was  molten,  the  cur- 
rents in  the  voluminous  atmosphere  surrounding  it,  mainly 
of  ascending  heated  gases  and  of  descending  precipitated 
liquids,  must  have  been  local,  numerous,  indefinite,  and  but 
little  distinguished  from  one  another.  But  as  fast  as  the 
surface  cooled,  and  solar  radiation  began  to  cause  appre- 
ciable differences  of  temperature  between  the  equatorial 
and  polar  regions,  a  decided  atmospheric  circulation  from 
poles  to  equator  and  from  equator  to  poles,  must  have  slowly 
established  itself:  the  vast  moving  masses  of  air  becoming, 
at  last,  trade-winds  and  other  such  permanent  definite  cur- 
rents. These  integrated  motions,  once  com- 
paratively homogeneous,  were  rendered  heterogeneous  as 
great  islands  and  continents  arose,  to  complicate  them  by 


398  THE   LAW  0F  EVOLUTION   CONCLUDED. 

periodic  winds,  caused  by  the  varied  heating  of  wide  tracts 
of  land  at  different  seasons.  Rhythmical  motions  of  a  con- 
stant and  simple  kind,  were,  by  increasing  multiformity  of 
the  Earth's  surface,  differentiated  into  an  involved  com- 
bination of  constant  and  recurrent  rhythmical  motions, 
joined  with  smaller  motions  that  are  irregular. 

Parallel  changes  must  have  taken  place  in  the  motions  of 
water.  On  a  thin  crust,  admitting  of  but  small  elevations 
and  depressions,  and  therefore  of  but  small  lakes  and  seas, 
none  beyond  small  local  circulations  were  possible.  But 
along  with  the  formation  of  continents  and  oceans,  came  the 
vast  movements  of  water  from  warm  latitudes  to  cold  and 
from  cold  to  warm — movements  increasing  in  amount,  in 
definiteness,  and  in  variety  of  distribution,  as  the  fea- 
tures of  the  Earth's  surface  became  larger  and  more  con- 
trasted. The  like  holds  with  drainage  waters. 
The  tricklings  of  insignficant  streams  over  narrow  pieces  of 
land,  were  once  the  only  motions  of  such  waters;  but  as  fast 
as  wide  areas  came  into  existence,  the  motions  of  many  tribu- 
taries became  massed  into  the  motions  of  great  rivers;  and 
instead  of  motions  very  much  alike,  there  arose  motions  con- 
siderably varied. 

ISTor  can  we  well  doubt  that  the  movements  in  the 
Earth's  crust  itself,  have  presented  an  analogous  progress. 
Small,  numerous,  local,  and  very  much  like  one  another, 
while  the  crust  was  thin,  the  elevations  and  subsidences 
must,  as  the  crust  thickened,  have  extended  over  larger 
areas,  must  have  continued  for  longer  eras  in  the  same 
directions,  and  must  have  been  made  more  unlike  in  differ- 
ent regions  by  local  differences  of  structure  in  the  crust. 

§  142.  In  organisms  the  advance  towards  a  more  inte- 
grated, heterogeneous,  and  definite  distribution  of  the  re- 
tained motion,  which  accompanies  the  advance  towards  a 
more  integrated,  heterogeneous,  and  definite  distribution  of 
the  component  matter,  is  mainly  what  we  understand  as  the 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION   CONCLUDED.  399 

development  of  functions.  All  active  functions  are  either 
sensible  movements,  as  those  produced  by  contractile  or- 
gans; or  such  insensible  movements  as  those  propagated 
through  the  nerves;  or  such  insensible  movements  as  those 
by  which,  in  secreting  organs,  molecular  re-arrangements 
are  effected,  and  new  combinations  of  matter  produced. 
And  what  we  have  here  to  observe  is,  that  during  evolution, 
functions,  like  structures,  become  more  consolidated  in- 
dividually, as  well  as  more  combined  with  one  another,  at 
the  same  time  that  they  become  more  multiform  and  more 
distinct. 

The  nutritive  juices  in  animals  of  low  types,  move  hither 
and  thither  through  the  tissues  quite  irregularly,  as  local 
strains  and  pressures  determine:  in  the  absence  of  a  dis- 
tinguishable blood  and  a  developed  vascular  system,  there 
is  no  definite  circulation.  But  along  with  the  structural 
evolution  which  establishes  a  finished  apparatus  for  dis- 
tributing blood,  there  goes  on  the  functional  evolution 
which  establishes  large  and  rapid  movements  of  blood, 
definite  in  their  courses  and  definitely  distinguished  as 
efferent  and  afferent,  and  that  are  heterogeneous  not  simply 
in  their  directions  but  in  their  characters — being  here  di- 
vided into  gushes  and  there  continuous. 

Instance,  again,  the  way  in  which,  accompanying  the 
structural  differentiations  and  integrations  of  the  aliment- 
ary canal,  there  arise  differentiations  and  integrations  both 
of  its  mechanical  movements  and  its  actions  of  a  non-me- 
chanical kind.  Along  an  alimentary  canal  of  a  primitive 
type,  there  pass,  almost  uniformly  from  end  to  end,  waves  of 
constriction.  But  in  a  well-organized  alimentary  canal, 
the  waves  of  constriction  are  widely  unlike  at  different 
parts,  in  their  kinds,  strengths,  and  rapidities.  In  the 
mouth  they  become  movements  of  prehension  and  mastica- 
tion— now  occurring  in  quick  succession  and  now  ceasing 
for  hours.  In  the  oesophagus  these  contractions,  propulsive 
in  their  office,  and  travelling  with  considerable  speed,  take 


400  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED. 

place  at  intervals  during  eating,  and  then  do  not  take  place 
till  the  next  meal.  In  the  stomach  another  modification  of 
this  originally  uniform  action  occurs:  the  muscular  con- 
strictions are  powerful,  and  continue  during  the  long  pe- 
riods that  the  stomach  contains  food.  Throughout  the  upper 
intestines,  again,  a  further  difference  shows  itself — the 
waves  travel  along  without  cessation  but  are  relatively  mod- 
erate. Finally,  in  the  rectum  this  rhythm  departs  in  an- 
other way  from  the  common  type:  quiescence  lasting  for 
many  hours,  is  followed  by  a  series  of  strong  contractions. 
Meanwhile,  the  essential  actions  which  these  movements  aid, 
have  been  growing  more  definitely  heterogeneous.  Secre- 
tion and  absorption  are  no  longer  carried  on  in  much  the 
same  way  from  end  to  end  of  the  tube ;  but  the  general  func- 
tion divides  into  various  subordinate  functions.  The  sol- 
vents and  ferments  furnished  by  the  coats  of  the  canal  and 
the  appended  glands,  become  widely  unlike  at  upper,  mid- 
dle, and  lower  parts  of  the  canal;  implying  different  kinds 
of  molecular  changes.  Here  the  process  is  mainly  secretory, 
there  it  is  mainly  absorbent,  while  in  other  places,  as  in 
the  oesophagus,  neither  secretion  nor  absorption  takes  place 
to    any    appreciable    extent.  While    these    and 

other  internal  motions,  sensible  and  insensible,  are  being 
rendered  more  various,  and  severally  more  consolidated  and 
distinct,  there  is  advancing  the  integration  by  which  they 
are  united  into  local  groups  of  motions  and  a  combined  sys- 
tem of  motions.  While  the  function  of  alimentation  sub- 
divides, its  sub-divisions  become  co-ordinated,  so  that  mus- 
cular and  secretory  actions  go  on  in  concert,  and  so  that 
excitement  of  one  part  of  the  canal  sets  up  excitement 
of  the  rest.  Moreover,  the  whole  alimentary  function, 
while  it  supplies  matter  for  the  circulatory  and  respira- 
tory functions,  becomes  so  integrated  with  them  that  it 
cannot  for  a  moment  go  on  without  them.  And,  as  evolu- 
tion advances,  all  three  of  these  fundamental  functions 
fall  into  greater  subordination  to  the  nervous  functions — 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED.  401 

depend  more  and  more  on  the  due  amount  of  nervous  dis- 
charge. 

When  we  trace  up  the  functions  of  external  organs  the 
same  truth  discloses  itself.  Microscopic  creatures  are 
moved  through  the  water  by  oscillations  of  the  cilia  cover- 
ing their  surfaces;  and  various  larger  forms,  as  the  TurbeJr 
laria,  progress  by  ciliary  action  over  solid  surfaces.  These 
motions  of  cilia  are,  in  the  first  place,  severally  very  minute ; 
in  the  second  place  they  are  homogeneous;  and  in  the  third 
place  there  is  but  little  definiteness  in  them  individually,  or 
in  their  joint  product,  which  is  mostly  a  mere  random 
change  of  place  not  directed  to  any  selected  point.  Con- 
trasting this  ciliary  action  with  the  action  of  developed  loco- 
motive organs  of  whatever  kind,  we  see  that  instead  of  in- 
numerable small  or  unintegrated  movements  there  are  a  few 
comparatively  large  or  integrated  movements;  that  actions 
all  alike  are  replaced  by  actions  partially  unlike;  and  that 
instead  of  being  very  feebly  or  almost  accidentally  co-ordi- 
nated, their  co-ordination  is  such  as  to  render  the  motions  of 
the  body  as  a  whole,  precise.  A  parallel  contrast, 

less  extreme  but  sufficiently  decided,  is  seen  when  we  pass 
from  the  lower  types  of  creatures  with  limbs  to  the  higher 
types  of  creatures  with  limbs.  The  legs  of  a  Centipede  have 
motions  that  are  numerous,  small,  and  homogeneous;  and 
are  so  little  integrated  that  when  the  creature  is  divided 
and  sub-divided,  the  legs  belonging  to  each  part  propel 
that  part  independently.  But  in  one  of  the  higher  Annu- 
losa,  as  a  Crab,  the  relatively  few  limbs  have  motions  that 
are  comparatively  large  in  their  amounts,  that  are  consid- 
erably unlike  one  another,  and  that  are  integrated  into  com- 
pound motions  of  tolerable  definiteness. 

§  143.  The  last  illustrations  are  introductory  to  illustra- 
tions of  the  kind  we  class  as  psychical.  They  are  the  physio- 
logical aspects  of  the  simpler  among  those  functions  which, 
under  a  more  special  and  complex  aspect,  we  distinguish  as 


402  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED. 

psychological.  The  phenomena  subjectively  known  as 
changes  in  consciousness,  are  objectively  known  as  nervous 
excitations  and  discharges,  which  science  now  interprets  into 
modes  of  motion.  Hence,  in  following  up  organic  evolution, 
the  advance  of  retained  motion  in  integration,  in  hetero- 
geneity, and  in  definiteness,  may  be  expected  to  show  itself 
alike  in  the  visible  nervo-muscular  actions  and  in  the  cor- 
relative mental  changes.  We  may  conveniently  look  at  the 
facts  as  exhibited  during  individual  evolution,  before  look- 
ing at  them  as  exhibited  in  general  evolution. 

The  progress  of  a  child  in  speech,  very  completely  ex- 
hibits the  transformation.  Infantine  noises  are  comparative- 
ly homogeneous;  alike  as  being  severally  long-drawn  and 
nearly  uniform  from  end  to  end,  and  as  being  constantly 
repeated  with  but  little  variation  of  quality  between  narrow 
limits.  They  are  quite  un-coordinated — there  is  no  integra- 
tion of  them  into  compound  sounds.  They  are  inarticulate, 
or  without  those  definite  beginnings  and  endings  character- 
izing the  sounds  we  call  words.  Progress  shows  itself  first 
in  the  multiplication  of  the  inarticulate  sounds:  the  extreme 
vowels  are  added  to  the  medium  vowels,  and  the  compound 
to  the  simple.  Presently  the  movements  which  form  the 
simpler  consonants  are  achieved,  and  some  of  the  sounds 
become  sharply  cut;  but  this  definiteness  is  partial,  for  only 
initial  consonants  being  used,  the  sounds  end  vaguely. 
TThile  an  approach  to  distinctness  thus  results,  there  also 
results,  by  combination  of  different  consonants  with  the 
same  vowels,  an  increase  of  heterogeneity;  and  along  with 
the  complete  distinctness  which  terminal  consonants  give, 
arises  a  further  great  addition  to  the  number  of  unlike 
sounds  produced.  The  more  difficult  consonants  and  the 
compound  consonants,  imperfectly  articulated  at  first,  are 
by  and  by  articulated  with  precision;  and  there  comes  yet 
another  multitude  of  different  and  definite  words — words 
that  imply  many  kinds  of  vocal  movements,  severally  per- 
formed with  exactness,  as  well  as  perfectly  integrated  into 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED.  403 

complex  groups.  The  subsequent  advance  to  dissyllables 
and  polysyllables,  and  to  involved  combinations  of  words, 
shows  the  still  higher  degree  of  integration  and  heterogene- 
ity eventually  reached  by  these  organic  motions.  The 
acts  of  consciousness  correlated  with  these  nervo-muscular 
acts,  of  course  go  through  parallel  phases;  and  the  advance 
from  childhood  to  maturity  yields  daily  proof  that  the 
changes  which,  on  their  physical  side  are  nervous  processes, 
and  on  their  mental  side  are  processes  of  thought,  become 
more  various,  more  defined,  more  coherent.  At  first  the 
intellectual  functions  are  very  much  alike  in  kind — recog- 
nitions and  classifications  of  simple  impressions  alone  go  on; 
but  in  course  of  time  these  functions  become  multiform. 
Reasoning  grows  distinguishable,  and  eventually  we  have 
conscious  induction  and  deduction;  deliberate  recollection 
and  deliberate  imagination  are  added  to  simple  unguided 
association  of  ideas;  more  special  modes  of  mental  action, 
as  those  which  result  in  mathematics,  music,  poetry,  arise; 
and  within  each  of  these  divisions  the  mental  processes 
are  ever  being  further  differentiated.  In  definiteness  it  is 
the  same.  The  infant  makes  its  observations  so  inac- 
curately that  it  fails  to  distinguish  individuals.  The  child 
errs  continually  in  its  spelling,  its  grammar,  its  arithmetic. 
The  youth  forms  incorrect  judgments  on  the  affairs  of  life. 
Only  with  maturity  comes  that  precise  co-ordination  in  the 
nervous  processes  that  is  implied  by  a  good  adjustment  of 
thoughts  to  things.  Lastly,  with  the  integration  by  which 
simple  mental  acts  are  combined  into  complex  mental  acts, 
it  is  so  likewise.  In  the  nursery  you  cannot  obtain  con- 
tinuous attention — there  is  inability  to  form  a  coherent 
series  of  impressions;  and  there  is  a  parallel  inability  to 
unite  many  co-existent  impressions,  even  of  the  same  order: 
witness  the  way  in  which  a  child's  remarks  on  a  picture, 
show  that  it  attends  only  to  the  individual  objects  repre- 
sented, and  never  to  the  picture  as  a  whole.  But  with 
advancing  years  it  becomes  possible  to  understand  an  in- 


404  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED. 

volved  sentence,  to  follow  long  trains  of  reasoning,  to  hold 
in  one  mental  grasp  numerous  concurrent  circumstances. 
The  like  progressive  integration  takes  place  among  the 
mental  changes  we  distinguish  as  feelings ;  which  in  a  child 
act  singly,  producing  impulsiveness,  but  in  an  adult  act  more 
in  concert,  producing  a  comparatively  balanced  conduct. 

After  these  illustrations  supplied  by  individual  evolu- 
tion, we  may  deal  briefly  with  those  supplied  by  general  evo- 
lution, which  are  analogous  to  them.  A  creature  of  very  low 
intelligence,  when  aware  of  some  large  object  in  motion 
near  it,  makes  a  spasmodic  movement,  causing,  it  may 
be,  a  leap  or  a  dart.  The  perceptions  implied  are  rela- 
tively simple,  homogeneous,  and  indefinite :  the  moving  ob- 
jects are  not  distinguished  in  their  kinds  as  injurious  or 
otherwise,  as  advancing  or  receding.  The  actions  of  escape 
are  similarly  all  of  one  kind,  have  no  adjustments  of  direc- 
tion, and  may  bring  the  creature  nearer  the  source  of  peril 
instead  of  further  off.  A  stage  higher,  when  the  dart  or  the 
leap  is  away  from  danger,  we  see  the  nervous  changes  so 
far  specialized  that  there  results  distinction  of  direction; 
indicating  a  greater  variety  among  them,  a  greater  co-ordi- 
nation or  integration  of  them  in  each  process,  and  a  greater 
defmiteness.  In  still  higher  animals  that  discriminate  be- 
tween enemies  and  not-enemies,  as  a  bird  that  flies-  from  a 
man  but  not  from  a  cow,  the  acts  of  perception  have 
severally  become  united  into  more  complex  wholes,  since 
cognition  of  certain  differential  attributes  is  implied;  they 
have  become  more  multiform,  since  each  additional  com- 
ponent impression  adds  to  the  number  of  possible  com- 
pounds; and  they  have,  by  consequence,  become  more  spe- 
cific in  their  correspondences  with  objects — more  definite. 
And  then  in  animals  so  intelligent  that  they  identify  by 
sight  not  species  only  but  individuals  of  a  species,  the 
mental  changes  are  yet  further  distinguished  in  the  same 
three  ways.  In  the  course  of  human  evolution  the 

law  is  equally  manifested.    The  thoughts  of  the  savage  are 


THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED.  405 

nothing"like  so  heterogeneous  in  their  kinds  as  those  of  the 
civilized  man,  whose  complex  environment  presents  a  multi- 
plicity of  new  phenomena.  His  mental  acts,  too,  are  much 
less  involved — he  has  no  words  for  abstract  ideas,  and  is 
found  to  be  incapable  of  integrating  the  elements  of  such 
ideas.  And  in  all  but  simple  matters  there  is  none  of  that 
precision  in  his  thinking  which,  among  civilized  men,  leads 
to  the  exact  conclusions  of  science.  ^Tor  do  the  emotions 
fail  to  exhibit  a  parallel  contrast. 

§  144.  How  in  societies  the  movements  or  functions  pro- 
duced by  the  confluence  of  individual  actions,  increase  in 
their  amounts,  their  multiformities,  their  precision,  and 
their  combination,  scarcely  needs  insisting  upon  after  what 
has  been  pointed  out  in  foregoing  chapters.  For  the  sake 
of  symmetry  of  statement,  however,  a  typical  example  or 
two  may  be  set  down. 

Take  the  actions  devoted  to  defence  or  aggression.  At 
first  the  military  function,  undifferentiated  from  the  rest 
(all  men  in  primitive  societies  being  warriors)  is  relatively 
homogeneous,  is  ill-combined,  and  is  indefinite:  savages 
making  a  joint  attack  severally  fight  independently,  in 
similar  ways,  and  without  order.  But  as  societies  evolve 
and  the  military  function  becomes  separate,  we  see  that 
while  its  scale  increases,  it  progresses  in  multiformity,  in 
definiteness,  and  in  combination.  The  movements  of  the 
thousands  of  soldiers  that  replace  the  tens  of  warriors,  are 
divided  and  re-divided  in  their  kinds — here  are  bodies  that 
manoeuvre  and  fire  artillery;  there  are  battalions  that  fight 
on  foot ;  and  elsewhere  are  troops  that  charge  on  horseback. 
Within  each  of  these  differentiated  functions  there  come 
others:  there  are  distinct  duties  discharged  by  privates,  ser- 
geants, captains,  colonels,  generals,  as  also  by  those  who 
constitute  the  commissariat  and  those  who  attend  to  the 
wounded.  The  actions  that  have  thus  become  comparative- 
ly heterogeneous  in  general  and  in  detail,  have  simultane- 


406  THE  LAW  OF  EVOLUTION   CONCLUDED. 

ously  increased  in  precision.  Accuracy  of  evolutions  is 
given  by  perpetual  drill;  so  that  in  battle,  men  and  the  regi- 
ments formed  of  them,  are  made  to  take  definite  positions 
and  perform  definite  acts  at  definite  times.  Once  more, 
there  has  gone  on  that  integration  by  which  the  multiform 
actions  of  an  army  are  directed  to  a  single  end.  By  a  co-or- 
dinating apparatus  having  the  commander-in-chief  for  its 
centre,  the  charges,  and  halts,  and  retreats  are  duly  con- 
certed; and  a  hundred  thousand  individual  actions  are 
united  under  one  will. 

The  progress  here  so  clearly  marked,  is  a  progress  trace- 
able throughout  social  functions  at  large.  Comparing  the 
rule  of  a  savage  chief  with  that  of  a  civilized  government, 
aided  by  its  subordinate  local  governments  and  their  officers, 
down  to  the  police  in  the  streets,  we  see  how,  as  men  have 
advanced  from  tribes  of  tens  to  nations  of  millions,  the  regu- 
lative process  has  grown  large  in  amount;  how,  guided 
by  written  laws,  it  has  passed  from  vagueness  and  irregu- 
larity to  comparative  precision;  and  how  it  has  sub-divided 
into  processes  increasingly  multiform.  Or  observing  how 
the  barter  that  goes  on  among  barbarians,  differs  from  our 
own  commercial  processes,  by  which  a  million's  worth  of 
commodities  is  distributed  daily;  by  which  the  relative  val- 
ues of  articles  immensely  varied  in  kinds  and  qualities  are 
measured,  and  the  supplies  adjusted  to  the  demands;  and 
by  which  industrial  activities  of  all  orders  are  so  combined 
that  each  depends  on  the  rest  and  aids  the  rest;  we  see  that 
the  kind  of  action  which  constitutes  trade,  has  become  pro- 
gressively more  vast,  more  varied,  more  definite,  and  more 
integrated. 

§  145.  A  finished  conception  of  Evolution  we  thus  find 
to  be  one  which  includes  the  re-distribution  of  the  retained 
motion,  as  well  as  that  of  the  component  matter.  This 
added  element  of  the  conception  is  scarcely,  if  at  all,  less 
important  than  the  other.     The  movements  of  the  Solar 


THE  LAW   OF  EVOLUTION  CONCLUDED.  407 

System  have  for  us  a  significance  equal  to  that  which  the 
sizes,  forms,  and  relative  distances  of  its  members  possess. 
And  of  the  phenomena  presented  by  an  organism,  it  must 
be  admitted  that  the  combined  sensible  and  insensible  ac- 
tions we  call  its  life,  do  not  yield  in  interest  to  its  structural 
traits.  Leaving  out,  however,  all  implied  reference  to  the 
way  in  which  these  two  orders  of  facts  concern  us,  ft  is  clear 
that,  with  each  re-distribution  of  matter  there  necessarily 
goes  a  re-distribution  of  motion ;  and  that  the  unified  knowl- 
edge constituting  Philosophy,  must  comprehend  both  as- 
pects of  the  transformation. 

While,  then,  we  have  to  contemplate  the  matter  of  an 
evolving  aggregate  as  undergoing,  not  progressive  integra- 
tion simply,  but  as  simultaneously  undergoing  various  sec- 
ondary re-distributions;  we  have  also  to  contemplate  the 
motion  of  an  evolving  aggregate,  not  only  as  being  gradually 
dissipated,  but  as  passing  through  many  secondary  re-distri- 
butions on  the  way  toward  dissipation.  As  the  structural 
complexities  that  arise  during  compound  evolution,  are  in- 
cidental to  the  progress  from  the  extreme  of  diffusion  to  the 
extreme  of  concentration;  so  the  functional  complexities 
accompanying  them,  are  incidental  to  the  progress  from  the 
greatest  quantity  of  contained  motion  to  the  least  quantity 
of  contained  motion.  And  we  have  to  state  these  con- 
comitants of  both  transformations,  as  well  as  their  begin- 
nings and  ends. 

Our  formula,  therefore,  needs  an  additional -clause.  To 
combine  this  satisfactorily  with  the  clauses  as  they  stand  in 
the  last  chapter,  is  scarcely  practicable ;  and  for  convenience 
of  expression  it  will  be  best  to  change  their  order.  Doing 
this,  and  making  the  requisite  addition,  the  formula  finally 
stands  thus  : — Evolution  is  an  integration  of  matter  and 
concomitant  dissipation  of  motion ;  during  which  the 
matter  passes  from  an  indefinite,  incoherent  homogeneity 
to  a  definite,  coherent  heterogeneity  ;  and  during  which  the 
retained  motion  undergoes  a  parallel  transformation. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE    INTERPRETATION    OF    EVOLUTION. 

§  146.  Is  this  law  ultimate  or  derivative?  Must  we  rest 
satisfied  with  the  conclusion  that  throughout  all  classes  of 
concrete  phenomena  such  is  the  course  of  transformation? 
Or  is  it  possible  for  us  to  ascertain  why  such  is  the  course 
of  transformation?  May  we  seek  for  some  all-pervading 
principle  which  underlies  this  all-pervading  process?  Can 
the  inductions  set  forth  in  the  preceding  four  chapters  be 
reduced  to  deductions? 

Manifestly  this  community  of  result  implies  community 
of  cause.  It  may  be  that  of  such  cause  no  account  can  be 
given,  further  than  that  the  Unknowable  is  manifested  to  us 
after  this  mode.  Or,  it  may  be  that  this  mode  of  mani- 
festation is  reducible  to  a  simpler  mode,  from  which  these 
many  complex  effects  follow.  Analogy  suggests  the  latter 
inference.  Just  as  it  was  possible  to  interpret  the  empirical 
generalizations  called  Kepler's  laws,  as  necessary  conse- 
quences of  the  law  of  gravitation;  so  it  may  be  possible  to 
interpret  the  foregoing  empirical  generalizations  as  neces- 
sary consequences  of  some  deeper  law. 

Unless  we  succeed  in  finding  a  rationale  of  this  universal 
metamorphosis,  we  obviously  fall  short  of  that  completely 
unified  knowledge  constituting  Philosophy.  As  they  at 
present  stand,  the  several  conclusions  we  have  lately  reached 
appear  to  be  independent — there  is  no  demonstrated  con- 
nexion between  increasing  deflniteness  and  increasing  het- 

408 


THE   INTERPRETATION   OF  EVOLUTION.  409 

erogeneity,  or  between  both  and  increasing  integration. 
Still  less  evidence  is  there  that  these  laws  of  the  re-distribu- 
tion of  matter  and  motion,  are  necessarily  correlated  with 
those  laws  of  the  direction  of  motion  and  tiie  rhythm  of  mo- 
tion, previously  set  forth.  But  until  we  see  these  now  sepa- 
rate truths  to  be  implications  of  one  truth,  our  knowledge  re- 
mains imperfectly  coherent. 


& 


§  147.  The  task  before  us,  then,  is  that  of  exhibiting 
the  phenomena  of  Evolution  in  synthetic  order.  Setting  out 
from  an  established  ultimate  principle,  it  has  to  be  shown 
that  the  course  of  transformation  among  all  kinds  of  ex- 
istences, cannot  but  be  that  which  we  have  seen  it  to  be. 
It  has  to  be  shown  that  the  re-distribution  of  matter  and 
motion,  must  everywhere  take  place  in  those  ways,  and  pro- 
duce those  traits,  which  celestial  bodies,  organisms,  societies, 
alike  display.  And  it  has  to  be  shown  that  this  universality 
of  process,  results  from  the  same  necessity  which  determines 
each  simplest  movement  around  us,  down  to  the  accelerated 
fall  of  a  stone  or  the  recurrent  beat  of  a  harp-string. 

In  other  words,  the  phenomena  of  Evolution  have  to  be 
deduced  from  the  Persistence  of  Force.  As  before  said — 
"  to  this  an  ultimate  analysis  brings  us  down;  and  on  this 
a  rational  synthesis  must  build  up.'7  This  being  the  ulti- 
mate truth  which  transcends  experience  by  underlying  it, 
so  furnishing  a  common  basis  on  which  the  widest  general- 
izations stand,  these  widest  generalizations  are  to  be  unified 
by  referring  them  to  this  common  basis.  Already  the 
truths  manifested  throughout  concrete  phenomena  of  all 
orders,  that  there  is  equivalence  among  transformed  forces, 
that  motion  follows  the  line  of  least  resistance,  and  that  it  is 
universally  rhythmic,  we  have  found  to  be  severally  dedu- 
cible  from  the  persistence  of  force;  and  this  affiliation  of 
them  on  the  persistence  of  force  has  reduced  them  to  a  co- 
herent whole.  Here  we  have  similarly  to  affiliate  the  univer- 
sal traits  of  Evolution,  by  showing  that,  given  the  persist- 
28 


410  THE   INTERPRETATION  OF  EVOLUTION". 

ence  of  force,  the  re-distribution  of  matter  and  motion  neces- 
sarily proceeds  in  such  way  as  to  produce  them;  and  by 
doing  this  we  shall  unite  them  as  co-relative  aspects  of  one 
law,  at  the  same  time  that  Ave  unite  this  law  with  the  fore- 
going simpler  laws. 

§  148.  Before  proceeding  it  will  be  well  to  set  down 
some  principles  that  must  be  borne  in  mind.  In  interpreting 
Evolution  we  shall  have  to  consider,  under  their  special 
forms,  the  various  resolutions  of  force  that4  accompany  the 
re-distribution  of  matter  and  motion.  Let  us  glance  at  such 
resolutions  under  their  most  general  forms. 

Any  incident  force  is  primarily  divisible  into  its  effective 
and  non-effective  portions.  In  mechanical  impact,  the  en- 
tire momentum  of  a  striking  body  is  never  communicated  to 
the  body  struck:  even  under  those  most  favourable  condi- 
tions in  which  the  striking  body  loses  all  its  sensible  motion, 
there  still  remains  with  it  some  of  the  original  momentum, 
under  the  shape  of  that  insensible  motion  produced  among 
its  particles  by  the  collision.  Of  the  light  or  heat  falling  on 
any  mass,  a  part,  more  or  less  considerable,  is  reflected ;  and 
only  the  remaining  part  works  molecular  changes  in  the 
mass.  Xext  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  effective 

force  is  itself  divisible  into  the  temporarily  effective  and  the 
permanently  effective.  The  units  of  an  aggregate  acted  on, 
may  undergo  those  rhythmical  changes  of  relative  position 
which  constitute  increased  vibration,  as  well  as  other 
changes  of  relative  position  which  are  not  from  instant  to 
instant  neutralized  by  opposite  ones.  Of  these,  the  first, 
disappearing  in  the  shape  of  radiating  undulations,  leave  the 
molecular  arrangement  as  it  originally  was;  while  the  sec- 
ond conduce  to  that  re-arrangement  characterizing  com- 
pound Evolution.  Yet  a  further  distinction  has 
to  be  made.  The  permanently  effective  force  works  out 
changes  of  relative  position  of  two  kinds — the  insensible 
and  the  sensible.     The  insensible  transpositions  among  the 


THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  EVOLUTION.  41 1 

units  are  those  constituting  molecular  changes,  including 
what  we  call  chemical  composition  and  decomposition;  and 
it  is  these  which  we  recognize  as  the  qualitative  differences 
that  arise  in  an  aggregate.  The  sensible  transpositions  are 
such  as  result  when  certain  of  the  units,  instead  of  being 
put  into  different  relations  with  their  immediate  neighbours, 
are  carried  away  from  them  and  deposited  elsewhere. 

Concerning  these  divisions  and  sub-divisions  of  any  force 
affecting  an  aggregate,  the  fact  which  it  chiefly  concerns  us 
to  observe  is,  that  they  are  complementary  to  each  other. 
Of  the  whole  incident  force,  the  effective  must  be  that  which 
remains  after  deducting  the  non-effective.  The  two  parts  of 
the  effective  force  must  vary  inversely  as  each  other :  where 
much  of  it  is  temporarily  effective,  little  of  it  can  be  perma- 
nently effective;  and  vice  versa.  Lastly,  the  permanently 
effective  force,  being  expended  in  working  both  the  insen- 
sible re-arrangements  which  constitute  molecular  modifica- 
tion, and  the  sensible  re-arrangements  which  result  in  struc- 
ture, must  generate  of  either  kind  an  amount  that  is  great 
or  small  in  proportion  as  it  has  generated  a  small  or  great 
amount  of  the  other. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


§  149.  The  difficulty  of  dealing  with  transformations  so 
many-sided  as  those  which  all  existences  have  undergone, 
or  are  undergoing,  is  such  as  to  make  a  definite  or  complete 
deductive  interpretation  seem  almost  hopeless.  So  to  grasp 
the  total  process  of  re-distribution  of  matter  and  motion,  as 
to  see  simultaneously  its  several  necessary  results  in  their 
actual  inter-dependence,  is  scarcely  possible.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  mode  of  rendering  the  process  as  a  whole  tolerably 
comprehensible.  Though  the  genesis  of  the  re-arrangement 
undergone  by  every  evolving  aggregate,  is  in  itself  one,  it 
presents  to  our  intelligence  several  factors;  and  after  in- 
terpreting the  effects  of  each  separately,  we  may,  by  syn- 
thesis of  the  interpretations,  form  an  adequate  conception. 

On  setting  out,  the  proposition  which  comes  first  in  logi- 
cal order,  is,  that  some  re-arrangement  must  result ;  and  this 
proposition  may  be  best  dealt  with  under  the  more  specific 
shape,  that  the  condition  of  homogeneity  is  a  condition  of 
unstable  equilibrium. 

First,  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  terms;  respecting  which 
some  readers  may  need  explanation.  The  phrase  unstable 
equilibrium  is  one  used  in  mechanics  to  express  a  balance  of 
forces  of  such  kind,  that  the  interference  of  any  further 
force,  however  minute,  will  destroy  the  arrangement  previ- 

*  The  idea  developed  in  this  chapter  originally  formed  part  of  an  article 

on    "  Transcendental    Physiology,"    published    in    1857.      See   Essays,   pp. 

279-290. 

412 


THE   INSTABILITY   OF   THE   HOMOGENEOUS.         413 

ously  subsisting ;  and  bring  about  a  totally  different  arrange- 
ment. Thus,  a  stick  poised  on  its  lower  end  is  in  unstable 
equilibrium:  however  exactly  it  may  be  placed  in  a  perpen- 
dicular position,  as  soon  as  it  is  left  to  itself  it  begins,  at  first 
imperceptibly,  to  lean  on  one  side,  and  with  increasing  rapid- 
ity falls  into  another  attitude.  Conversely,  a  stick  suspended 
from  its  upper  end  is  in  stable  equilibrium:  however  much 
disturbed,  it  will  return  to  the  same  position.  The  proposi- 
tion is,  then,  that  the  state  of  homogeneity,  like  the  state  of 
the  stick  poised  on  its  lower  end,  is  one  that  cannot  be  main- 
tained.    Let  us  take  a  few  illustrations. 

Of  mechanical  ones  the  most  familiar  is  that  of  the 
scales.  If  they  be  accurately  made,  and  not  clogged  by  dirt 
or  rust,  it  is  impossible  to  keep  a  pair  of  scales  perfectly  bal- 
anced: eventually  one  scale  will  descend  and  the  other  as- 
cend— they  will  assume  a  heterogeneous  relation.  Again,  if 
we  sprinkle  over  the  surface  of  a  fluid  a  number  of  equal- 
sized  particles,  having  an  attraction  for  each  other,  they 
will,  no  matter  how  uniformly  distributed,  by  and  by  con- 
centrate irregularly  into  one  or  more  groups.  Were  it  pos- 
sible to  bring  a  mass  of  water  into  a  state  of  perfect  homoge- 
neity— a  state  of  complete  quiescence,  and  exactly  equal 
density  throughout — yet  the  radiation  of  heat  from  neigh- 
bouring bodies,  by  affecting  differently  its  different  parts, 
would  inevitably  produce  inequalities  of  density  and  conse- 
quent currents;  and  would  so  render  it  to  that  extent  hetero- 
geneous. Take  a  piece  of  red-hot  matter,  and  however 
evenly  heated  it  may  at  first  be,  it  will  quickly  cease  to  be  so : 
the  exterior,  cooling  faster  than  the  interior,  will  become 
different  in  temperature  from  it.  And  the  lapse  into  hetero- 
geneity of  temperature,  so  obvious  in  this  extreme  case, 
takes  place  more  or  less  in  all  cases.  The  action 

of  chemical  forces  supplies  other  illustrations.  Expose  a 
fragment  of  metal  to  air  or  water,  and  in  course  of  time  it 
will  be  coated  with  a  film  of  oxide,  carbonate,  or  other  com- 
pound :  that  is — its  outer  parts  will  become  unlike  its  inner 


414         TEE   INSTABILITY   OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

parts.  Usually  the  heterogeneity  produced  by  the  action 
of  chemical  forces  on  the  surfaces  of  masses,  is  not  strik- 
ing; because  the  changed  portions  are  soon  washed  away, 
or  otherwise  removed.  But  if  this  is  prevented,  compara- 
tively complex  structures  result.  Quarries  of  trap-rock 
contain  some  striking  examples.  Xot  unfrequently  a  piece 
of  trap  may  be  found  reduced,  by  the  action  of  the  weather, 
to  a  number  of  loosely-adherent  coats,  like  those  of  an 
onion.  Where  the  block  has  been  quite  undisturbed,  we 
may  trace  the  whole  series  of  these,  from  the  angular, 
irregular  outer  one,  through  successively  included  ones  in 
which  the  shape  becomes  gradually  rounded,  ending 
finally  in  a  spherical  nucleus.  On  comparing  the  original 
mass  of  stone  with  its  group  of  concentric  coats,  each  of 
which  differs  from  the  rest  in  form,  and  probably  in  the  state 
of  decomposition  at  which  it  has  arrived,  we  get  a  marked 
illustration  of  the  multiformity  to  which,  in  lapse  of  time, 
a  uniform  body  may  be  brought  by  external  chemical 
action.  The  instability  of  the  homogeneous  is  equal- 

ly seen  in  the  changes  set  up  throughout  the  interior  of  a 
mass,  when  it  consists  of  units  that  are  not  rigidly  bound  to- 
gether. The  atoms  of  a  precipitate  never  remains  separate, 
and  equably  distributed  through  the  fluid  in  which  they 
make  their  appearance.  They  aggregate  either  into  crystal- 
line grains,  each  containing  an  immense  number  of  atoms, 
or  they  aggregate  into  flocculi,  each  containing  a  yet  larger 
number;  and  where  the  mass  of  fluid  is  great,  and  the  process 
prolonged,  these  flocculi  do  not  continue  equi-distant,  but 
break  up  into  groups.  That  is  to  say,  there  is  a  destruc- 
tion of  the  balance  at  first  subsisting  among  the  diffused  par- 
ticles, and  also  of  the  balance  at  first  subsisting  among  the 
groups  into  which  these  particles  unite.  Certain  solutions 

of  non-crystalline  substances  in  highly  volatile  liquids,  exhib- 
it in  the  course  of  half  an  hour  a  whole  series  of  changes  that 
are  set  up  in  the  alleged  way.  If  for  example  a  little  shell- 
lac-varnish  (made  by  dissolving  shell-lac  in  coal-naphtha 


THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE   HOMOGENEOUS.         415 

until  it  is  of  the  consistence  of  cream)  be  poured  on  a  piece 
of  paper,  the  surface  of  the  varnish  will  shortly  become 
marked,  by  polygonal  divisions,  which,  first  appearing  round 
the  edge  of  the  mass,  spread  towards  its  centre.  Under  a 
lense  these  irregular  polygons  of  five  or  more  sides,  are  seen 
to  be  severally  bounded  by  dark  lines,  on  each  side  of  which 
there  are  light-coloured  borders.  By  the  addition  of  matter 
to  their  inner  edges,  the  borders  slowly  broaden,  and  thus 
encroach  on  the  areas  of  the  polygons ;  until  at  length  there 
remains  nothing  but  a  dark  spot  in  the  centre  of  each.  At 
the  same  time  the  boundaries  of  the  polygons  become 
curved;  and  they  end  by  appearing  like  spherical  sacs 
pressed  together;  strangely  simulating  (but  only  simulating) 
a  group  of  nucleated  cells.  Here  a  rapid  loss  of  homogene- 
ity is  exhibited  in  three  ways: — First,  in  the  formation  of 
the  film,  which  is  the  seat  of  these  changes;  second,  in  the 
formation  of  the  polygonal  sections  into  which  this  film  di- 
vides; and  third,  in  the  contrast  that  arises  between  the 
polygonal  sections  round  the  edge,  where  they  are  small 
and  early  formed,  and  those  in  the  centre  which  are  larger 
and  formed  later. 

The  instability  thus  variously  illustrated  is  obviously 
consequent  on  the  fact,  that  the  several  parts  of  any  homo- 
geneous aggregation  are  necessarily  exposed  to  different 
forces — forces  that  differ  either  in  kind  or  amount;  and  be- 
ing exposed  to  different  forces  they  are  of  necessity  differ- 
ently modified.  The  relations  of  outside  and  inside,  and  of 
comparative  nearness  to  neighbouring  sources  of  influence, 
imply  the  reception  of  influences  that  are  unlike  in  quantity 
or  quality,  or  both;  and  it  follows  that  unlike  changes 
will  be  produced  in  the  parts  thus  dissimilarly  acted  upon. 

For  like  reasons  it  is  manifest  that  the  process  must  re- 
peat itself  in  each  of  the  subordinate  groups  of  units  that 
are  differentiated  by  the  modifying  forces.  Each  of  these 
subordinate  groups,  like  the  original  group,  must  gradually, 
in  obedience  to  the  influences  acting  upon  it,  lose  its  balance 


416         THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

of  parts — must  pass  from  a  uniform  into  a  multiform  state. 
And  so  on  continuously.  Whence  indeed  it  is  clear  that 

not  only  must  the  homogeneous  lapse  into  the  non-homo- 
geneous, but  that  the  more  homogeneous  must  tend  ever  to 
become  less  homogeneous.  If  any  given  whole,  instead  of 
being  absolutely  uniform  throughout,  consist  of  parts  dis- 
tinguishable from  each  other — if  each  of  these  parts,  while 
somewhat  unlike  other  parts,  is  uniform  within  itself;  then, 
each  of  them  being  in  unstable  equilibrium,  it  follows  that 
while  the  changes  set  up  within  it  must  render  it  multiform, 
they  must  at  the  same  time  render  the  whole  more  multi- 
form than  before.  The  general  principle,  now  to  be  fol- 
lowed out  in  its  applications,  is  thus  somewhat  more  compre- 
hensive than  the  title  of  the  chapter  implies.  Xo  demurrer 
to  the  conclusions  drawn,  can  be  based  on  the  ground  that 
perfect  homogeneity  nowhere  exists;  since,  whether  that 
state  with  which  we  commence  be  or  be  not  one  of  perfect 
homogeneity,  the  process  must  equally  be  towards  a  relative 
heterogeneity. 

§  150.  The  stars  are  distributed  with  a  three-fold  irregu- 
larity. There  is  first  the  marked  contrast  between  the 
plane  of  the  milky  way  and  other  parts  of  the  heavens,  in 
respect  of  the  quantities  of  stars  within  given  visual  areas. 
There  are  secondary  contrasts  of  like  kind  in  the  milky  way 
itself,  which  has  its  thick  and  thin  places;  as  well  as 
throughout  the  celestial  spaces  in  general,  which  are  much 
more  closely  strown  in  some  regions  than  in  others.  And 
there  is  a  third  order  of  contrasts  produced  by  the  aggre- 
gation of  stars  into  small  clusters.  Besides  this  heteroge- 
neity of  distribution  of  the  stars  in  general,  considered  with- 
out distinction  of  kinds,  a  further  such  heterogeneity  is  dis- 
closed when  they  are  classified  by  their  differences  of  colour, 
which  doubtless  answer  to  differences  of  physical  constitu- 
tion. While  the  yellow  stars  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
heavens,  the  red  and  blue  stars  are  not  so :  there  are  wide 


THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS.         417 

regions  in  which  both  red  and  blue  stars  are  rare ;  there  are 
regions  in  which  the  blue  occur  in  considerable  numbers, 
and  there  are  other  regions  in  which  the  red  are  comparative- 
ly abundant.  Yet  one  more  irregularity  of  like  significance 
is  presented  by  the  nebulas, — aggregations  of  matter  which, 
whatever  be  their  nature,  most  certainly  belong  to  our 
sidereal  system.  For  the  nebulae  are  not  dispersed  Avith  any- 
thing like  uniformity;  but  are  abundant  around  the  poles  of 
the  galactic  circle  and  rare  in  the  neighbourhood  of  its 
plane.  No  one  will  expect  that  anything  like  a 

definite  interpretation  of  this  structure  can  be  given  on  the 
hypothesis  of  Evolution,  or  any  other  hypothesis.  The  most 
that  can  be  looked  for  is  some  reason  for  thinking  that 
irregularities,  not  improbably  of  these  kinds,  would  occur  in 
the  course  of  Evolution,  supposing  it  to  have  taken  place. 
Any  one  called  on  to  assign  such  reason  might  argue,  that  if 
the  matter  of  which  stars  and  all  other  celestial  bodies  con- 
sist, be  assumed  to  have  originally  existed  in  a  diffused  form 
throughout  a  space  far  more  vast  even  than  that  which  our 
sidereal  system  now  occupies,  the  instability  of  the  homo- 
geneous would  negative  its  continuance  in  that  state.  In  de- 
fault of  an  absolute  balance  among  the  forces  with  which 
the  dispersed  particles  acted  on  each  other  (which  could  not 
exist  in  any  aggregation  having  limits)  he  might  show  that 
motion  and  consequent  changes  of  distribution  would  neces- 
sarily result.  The  next  step  in  the  argument  would  be  that 
in  matter  of  such  extreme  tenuity  and  feeble  cohesion  there 
would  be  motion  towards  local  centres  of  gravity,  as  well  as 
towards  the  general  centre  of  gravity;  just  as,  to  use  a 
humble  illustration,  the  particles  of  a  precipitate  aggregate 
into  flocculi  at  the  same  time  that  they  sink  towards  the 
earth.  He  might  urge  that  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other, 
these  smallest  and  earliest  local  aggregations  must  gradually 
divide  into  groups,  each  concentrating  to  its  own  centre  of 
gravity, — a  process  which  must  repeat  itself  on  a  larger  and 
larger  scale.    In  conformity  with  the  law  that  -motion  once 


418         THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

set  up  in  any  direction  becomes  itself  a  cause  of  subsequent 
motion  in  that  direction,  lie  might  further  infer  that  the 
heterogeneities  thus  set  up  would  tend  ever  to  become  more 
pronounced.  Established  mechanical  principles  would 
justify  him  in  the  conclusion  that  the  motions  of  these  ir- 
regular masses  of  slightly  aggregated  nebular  matter  to- 
wards their  common  centre  of  gravity  must  be  severally  ren- 
dered eurvelinear,  by  the  resistance  of  the  medium  from 
which  they  were  precipitated;  and  that  in  consequence  of 
the  irregularities  of  distribution  already  set  up,  such  con- 
flicting curvelinear  motions  must,  by  composition  of  forces, 
end  in  a  rotation  of  the  incipient  sidereal  system.  He  might 
without  difficulty  show  that  the  resulting  centrifugal  force 
must  so  far  modify  the  process  of  general  aggregation,  as  to 
prevent  anything  like  uniform  distribution  of  the  stars  even- 
tually formed — that  there  must  arise  a  contrast  such  as  we 
see  between  the  galactic  circle  and  the  rest  of  the  heavens. 
He  might  draw  the  further  not  unwarrantable  inference, 
that  differences  in  the  process  of  local  concentration  would 
probably  result  from  the  unlikeness  between  the  physical 
conditions  existing  around  the  general  axis  of  rotation  and 
those  existing  elsewhere.  To  which  he  might  add,  that 
after  the  formation  of  distinct  stars,  the  ever-increasing 
irregularities  of  distribution  due  to  continuance  of  the  same 
causes  would  produce  that  patchiness  which  distinguishes 
the  heavens  in  both  its  larger  and  smaller  areas.  "We 

need  not  here  however  commit  ourselves  to  such  far-reach- 
ing speculations.  For  the  purposes  of  the  general  argument 
it  is  needful  only  to  show,  that  any  finite  mass  of  diffused 
matter,  even  though  vast  enough  to  form  our  whole  sidereal 
system,  could  not  be  in  stable  equilibrium;  that  in  default 
of  absolute  sphericity,  absolute  uniformity  of  composition, 
and  absolute  symmetry  of  relation  to  all  forces  external  to  it, 
its  concentration  must  go  on  with  an  ever-increasing  irregu- 
larity ;  and  that  thus  the  present  aspect  of  the  heavens  is  not, 
so  far  as  we  can  judge,  incongruous  with  the  hypothesis  of  a 


THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS.         419 

general  evolution  consequent  on  the  instability  of  the  homo- 
geneous. 

Descending  to  that  more  limited  form  of  the  nebular 
hypothesis  which  regards  the  solar  system  as  having  resulted 
by  gradual  concentration;  and  assuming  this  concentration 
to  have  advanced  so  far  as  to  produce  a  rotating  spheroid  of 
nebulous  matter;  let  us  consider  what  further  consequence 
the  instability  of  the  homogeneous  necessitates.  Having 
become  oblate  in  figure,  unlike  in  the  densities  of  its  centre 
and  surface,  unlike  in  their  temperatures,  and  unlike  in  the 
velocities  with  which  its  parts  move  round  their  common 
axis,  such  a  mass  can  no  longer  be  called  homogeneous;  and 
therefore  any  further  changes  exhibited  by  it  as  a  whole, 
can  illustrate  the  general  law,  only  as  being  changes  from  a 
more  homogeneous  to  a  less  homogeneous  state.  Changes  of 
this  kind  are  to  be  found  in  the  transformations  of  such  of  its 
parts  as  are  still  homogeneous  within  themselves.  If  we 
accept  the  conclusion  of  Laplace,  that  the  equatorial  portion 
of  this  rotating  and  contracting  spheroid  will  at  successive 
stages  acquire  a  centrifugal  force  great  enough  to  prevent 
any  nearer  approach  to  the  centre  round  which  it  rotates, 
and  will  so  be  left  behind  by  the  inner  parts  of  the  spheroid 
in  its  still-continued  contraction;  we  shall  find,  in  the  fate  of 
the  detached  ring,  a  fresh  exemplification  of  the  principle 
Ave  are  following  out.  Consisting  of  gaseous  matter,  such  a 
ring,  even  if  absolutely  uniform  at  the  time  of  its  detach- 
ment, cannot  continue  so.  To  maintain  its  equilibrium 
there  must  be  an  almost  perfect  uniformity  in  the  action  of 
all  external  forces  upon  it  (almost,  wTe  must  say,  because  the 
cohesion,  even  of  extremely  attenuated  matter,  might  suffice 
to  neutralize  very  minute  disturbances) ;  and  against  this  the 
probabilities  are  immense.  In  the  absence  of  equality 
among  the  forces,  internal  and  external,  acting  on  such  a 
ring,  there  must  be  a  point  or  points  at  which  the  cohesion  of 
its  parts  is  less  than  elsewhere — a  point  or  points  at  which 
rupture  will  therefore  take  place.     Laplace  assumed  that 


420         THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

the  ring  would  rupture  at  one  place  only;  and  would  then 
collapse  on  itself.  But  this  is  a  more  than  questionable 
assumption — such  at  least  I  know  to  be  the  opinion  of  an 
authority  second  to  none  among  those  now  living.  So 
vast  a  ring,  consisting  of  matter  having  such  feeble  cohe- 
sion, must  break  up  into  many  parts.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
still  inferable  from  the  instability  of  the  homogeneous,  that 
the  ultimate  result  which  Laplace  predicted  would  take 
place.  For  even  supposing  the  masses  of  nebulous  matter 
into  which  such  a  ring  separated,  were  so  equal  in  their 
sizes  and  distances  as  to  attract  each  other  with  exactly 
equal  forces  (which  is  infinitely  improbable);  yet  the  un- 
equal action  of  external  disturbing  forces  would  inevitably 
destroy  their  equilibrium — there  would  be  one  or  more 
points  at  which  adjacent  masses  would  begin  to  part  com- 
pany. Separation  once  commenced,  would  with  ever-accel- 
erating speed  lead  to  a  grouping  of  the  masses.  And  obvi- 
ously a  like  result  would  eventually  take  place  with  the 
groups  thus  formed;  until  they  at  length  aggregated  into  a 
single  mass. 

Leaving  the  region  of  speculative  astronomy,  let  us  con- 
sider the  Solar  System  as  it  at  present  exists.  And  here  it 
will  be  well,  in  the  first  place,  to  note  a  fact  which  may  be 
thought  at  variance  with  the  foregoing  argument — namely, 
the  still-continued  existence  of  Saturn's  rings;  and  especially 
of  the  internal  nebulous  ring  lately  discovered.  To  the 
objection  that  the  outer  rings  maintain  their  equilibrium, 
the  reply  is  that  the  comparatively  great  cohesion  of  liquid 
or  solid  substance  would  suffice  to  prevent  any  slight  tend- 
ency to  rupture  from  taking  effect.  And  that  a  nebulous 
ring  here  still  preserves  its  continuity,  does  not  really  nega- 
tive the  foregoing  conclusion;  since  it  happens  under  the 
quite  exceptional  influence  of  those  symmetrically  disposed 
forces  which  the  external  rings  exercise  on  it.  Here 

indeed  it  deserves  to  be  noted,  that  though  at  first  sight  the 
Saturn ian  system  appears  at  variance  with  the  doctrine  that 


THE  INSTABILITY  OF   THE  HOMOGENEOUS.         421 

a  state  of  homogeneity  is  one  of  unstable  equilibrium,  it  does 
in  reality  furnish  a  curious  confirmation  of  this  doctrine. 
For  Saturn  is  not  quite  concentric  with  his  rings;  and  it  has 
been  proved  mathematically  that  were  he  and  his  rings  con- 
centrically situated,  they  could  not  remain  so:  the  homo- 
geneous relation  being  unstable,  would  gravitate  into  a 
heterogeneous  one.  And  this  fact  serves  to  remind  us  of  the 
allied  one  presented  throughout  the  whole  Solar  System. 
All  orbits,  whether  of  planets  or  satellites,  are  more  or  less 
excentric — none  of  them  are  perfect  circles;  and  were  they 
perfect  circles  they  would  soon  become  ellipses.  Mutual 
perturbations  would  inevitably  generate  excentricities. 
That  is  to  say,  the  homogeneous  relations  would  lapse  into 
heterogeneous  ones. 

§  151.  Already  so  many  references  have  been  made  to 
the  gradual  formation  of  a  crust  over  the  originally  incan- 
descent Earth,  that  it  may  be  thought  superfluous  again  to 
name  it.  It  has  not,  however,  been  before  considered  in 
connexion  with  the  general  principle  under  discussion. 
Here  then  it  must  be  noted  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  the 
instability  of  the  homogeneous.  In  this  cooling  down  and 
solidification  of  the  Earth's  surface,  we  have  one  of  the  sim- 
plest, as  well  as  one  of  the  most  important,  instances,  of  that 
change  from  a  uniform  to  a  multiform  state  which  occurs  in 
any  mass  through  exposure  of  its  different  parts  to  different 
conditions.  To  the  differentiation  of  the  Earth's  ex- 

terior from  its  interior  thus  brought  about,  we  must  add  one 
of  the  most  conspicuous  differentiations  which  the  exterior 
itself  afterwards  undergoes,  as  being  similarly  brought 
about.  Were  the  conditions  to  which  the  surface  of  the 
Earth  is  exposed,  alike  in  all  directions,  there  would  be  no 
obvious  reason  why  certain  of  its  parts  should  become  per- 
manently unlike  the  rest.  But  being  unequally  exposed  to 
the  chief  external  centre  of  force — the  Sun — its  main  divis- 
ions become  unequally  modified:  as  the  crust  thickens  and 


422         THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

cools,  there  arises  that  contrast,  now  so  decided,  between  the 
polar  and  equatorial  regions. 

Along  with  these  most  marked  physical  differentiations 
of  the  Earth,  which  are  manifestly  consequent  on  the  insta- 
bility of  the  homogeneous,  there  have  been  going  on  numer- 
ous chemical  differentiations,  admitting  of  similar  interpre- 
tation. Without  raising  the  question  whether,  as  some 
think,  the  so-called  simple  substances  are  themselves  com- 
pounded of  unknown  elements  (elements  which  we  cannot 
separate  by  artificial  heat,  but  which  existed  separately 
when  the  heat  of  the  Earth  was  greater  than  any  which  we 
can  produce), — without  raising  this  question,  it  will  suffice 
the  present  purpose  to  show  how,  in  place  of  that  compara- 
tive homogeneity  of  the  Earth's  crust,  chemically  consid- 
ered, which  must  have  existed  when  its  temperature  was 
high,  there  has  arisen,  during  its  cooling,  an  increasing 
chemical  heterogeneity:  each  element  or  compound,  being- 
unable  to  maintain  its  homogeneity  in  presence  of  various 
surrounding  affinities,  having  fallen  into  heterogeneous 
combinations.  Let  us  contemplate  this  change  somewhat  in 
detail.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  at  an 

extreme  heat,  the  bodies  we  call  elements  cannot  combine. 
Even  under  such  heat  as  can  be  generated  artificially,  some 
very  strong  affinities  yield;  and  the  great  majority  of  chemi- 
cal compounds  are  decomposed  at  much  lower  temperatures. 
Whence  it  seems  not  improbable  that,  when  the  Earth  was 
in  its  first  state  of  incandescence,  there  were  no  chemical 
combinations  at  all.  But  without  drawing  this  inference, 
let  us  set  out  with  the  unquestionable  fact  that  the  com- 
pounds which  can  exist  at  the  highest  temperatures,  and 
which  must  therefore  have  been  the  first  formed  as  the 
Earth  cooled,  are  those  of  the  simplest  constitutions.  The 
protoxides — including  under  that  head  the  alkalies,  earths, 
<tc. — are,  as  a  class,  the  most  fixed  compounds  known:  the 
majority  of  them  resisting  decomposition  by  any  heat  we  can 
generate.     These,  consisting  severally  of  one  atom  of  each 


THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS.        423 

component  element,  are  combinations  of  the  simplest  order 
— are  but  one  degree  less  homogeneous  than  the  elements 
themselves.  More  heterogeneous  than  these,  more  decom- 
posable by  heat,  and  therefore  later  in  the  Earth's  history, 
are  the  deutoxides,  tritoxides,  peroxides,  &c. ;  in  which  two, 
three,  four,  or  more  atoms  of  oxygen  are  united  with  one 
atom  of  metal  or  other  base.  Still  less  able  to  resist  heat, 
are  the  salts;  which  present  us  with  compound  atoms  each 
made  up  of  five,  six,  seven,  eight,  ten,  twelve,  or  more  atoms, 
of  three,  if  not  more,  kinds.  Then  there  are  the  hydrated 
salts,  of  a  yet  greater  heterogeneity,  which  undergo  par- 
tial decomposition  at  much  lower  temperatures.  After 
them  come  the  further-complicated  supersalts  and  double 
salts,  having  a  stability  again  decreased;  and  so  through- 
out. After  making  a  few  unimportant  qualifications  de- 
manded by  peculiar  affinities,  I  believe  no  chemist  will  deny 
it  to  be  a  general  law  of  these  inorganic  combinations 
that,  other  things  equal,  the  stability  decreases  as  the  com- 
plexity increases.  And  then  when  we  pass  to  the  com- 
pounds that  make  up  organic  bodies,  we  find  this  general 
law  still  further  exemplified :  we  find  much  greater  complex- 
ity and  much  less  stability.  An  atom  of  albumen,  for  in- 
stance, consists  of  482  ultimate  atoms  of  five  different  kinds. 
Fibrine,  still  more  intricate  in  constitution,  contains  in  each 
atom,  298  atoms  of  carbon,  49  of  nitrogen,  2  of  sulphur, 
228  of  hydrogen,  and  92  of  oxygen — in  all,  660  atoms;  or, 
more  strictly  speaking — equivalents.  And  these  two  sub- 
stances are  so  unstable  as  to  decompose  at  quite  moderate 
temperatures;  as  that  to  which  the  outside  of  a  joint  of  roast 
meat  is  exposed.  Possibly  it  will  be  objected  that  some  inor- 
ganic compounds,  as  phosphuretted  hydrogen  and  chloride 
of  nitrogen,  are  more  decomposable  than  most  organic  com- 
pounds. This  is  true.  But  the  admission  may  be  made 
without  damage  to  the  argument.  The  proposition  is  not 
that  all  simple  combinations  are  more  fixed  than  all  complex 
ones.    To  establish  our  inference  it  is  necessary  only  to  show 


424        THE   INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

that,  as  an  average  fact,  the  simple  combinations  can  exist 
at  a  higher  temperature  than  the  complex  ones.  And  this  is 
wholly  beyond  question.  Thus  it  is  manifest  that  the 

present  chemical  heterogeneity  of  the  Earth's  surface  has 
arisen  by  degrees  as  the  decrease  of  heat  has  permitted ;  and 
that  it  has  shown  itself  in  three  forms — first,  in  the  multipli- 
cation of  chemical  compounds;  second,  in  the  greater  num- 
ber of  different  elements  contained  in  the  more  modern  of 
these  compounds;  and  third,  in  the  higher  and  more  varied 
multiples  in  which  these  more  numerous  elements  combine. 
Without  specifying  them,  it  will  suffice  just  to  name  the 
meteorologic  processes  eventually  set  up  in  the  Earth's  at- 
mosphere, as  further  illustrating  the  alleged  law.  They 
equally  display  that  destruction  of  a  homogeneous  state 
which  results  from  unequal  exposure  to  incident  forces. 

§  1 52.  Take  a  mass  of  unorganized  but  organizable  mat- 
ter— either  the  body  of  one  of  the  lowest  living  forms,  or  the 
germ  of  one  of  the  higher.  Consider  its  circumstances. 
Either  it  is"  immersed  in  water  or  air,  or  it  is  contained  with- 
in a  parent  organism.  Wherever  placed,  however,  its  outer 
and  inner  parts  stand  differently  related  to  surrounding 
agencies — nutriment,  oxygen,  and  the  various  stimuli.  But 
this  is  not  all.  Whether  it  lies  quiescent  at  the  bottom  of 
the  water  or  on  the  leaf  of  a  plant;  whether  it  moves  through 
the  water  preserving  some  definite  attitude;  or  whether  it  is 
in  the  inside  of  an  adult ;  it  equally  results  that  certain  parts 
of  its  surface  are  more  exposed  to  surrounding  agencies  than 
other  parts — in  some  cases  more  exposed  to  light,  heat,  or 
oxygen,  and  in  others  to  the  maternal  tissues  and  their  con- 
tents. Hence  must  follow  the  destruction  of  its  original 
equilibrium.  This  may  take  place  in  one  of  two  way-. 
Either  the  disturbing  forces  may  be  such  as  to  overbalance 
the  affinities  of  the  organic  elements,  in  which  case  there 
result  those  changes  which  are  known  as  decomposition ;  or, 
as  is  ordinarily  the  case,  such  changes  are  induced  as  do  not 


THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS.         425 

destroy  the  organic  compounds,  but  only  modify  them:  the 
parts  most  exposed  to  the  modifying  forces  being  most  modi- 
fied.   To  elucidate  this,  suppose  we  take  a  few  cases. 

Note  first  what  appear  to  be  exceptions.  Certain 
minute  animal  forms  present  us  either  with  no  appreciable 
differentiations  or  with  differentiations  so  obscure  as  to  be 
made  out  with  great  difficulty.  In  the  Rhizopods,  the  sub- 
stance of  the  jelly-like  body  remains  throughout  life  unor- 
ganized, even  to  the  extent  of  having  no  limiting  mem- 
brane ;  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  thread-like  processes 
protruded  by  the  mass  coalesce  on  touching  each  other. 
Whether  or  not  the  nearly  allied  Amoeba,  of  which  the  less 
numerous  and  more  bulky  processes  do  not  coalesce,  has,  as 
lately  alleged,  something  like  a  cell-wall  and  a  nucleus,  it  is 
clear  that  the  distinction  of  parts  is  very  slight ;  since  parti- 
cles of  food  pass  bodily  into  the  inside  through  any  part  of 
the  periphery,  and  since  when  the  creature  is  crushed  to 
pieces,  each  piece  behaves  as  the  whole  did.  Now  these  cases, 
in  which  there  is  either  no  contrast  of  structure  between  ex- 
terior and  interior  or  very  little,  though  seemingly  opposed 
to  the  above  inference,  are  really  very  significant  evidences 
of  its  truth.  For  what  is  the  peculiarity  of  this  division  of 
the  Protozoa  f  Its  members  undergo  perpetual  and  irregu- 
lar changes  of  form — they  show  no  persistent  relation  of 
parts.  What  lately  formed  a  portion  of  the  interior  is  now 
protruded,  and,  as  a  temporary  limb,  is  attached  to  some 
object  it  happens  to  touch.  What  is  now  a  part  of  the  sur- 
face will  presently  be  drawn,  along  with  the  atom  of  nutri- 
ment sticking  to  it,  into  the  centre  of  the  mass.  Either  the 
relations  of  inner  and  outer  have  no  permanent  existence, 
or  they  are  very  slightly  marked.  But  by  the  hypothesis, 
it  is  only  because  of  their  unlike  positions  with  respect  to 
modifying  forces,  that  the  originally  like  units  of  a  living 
mass  become  unlike.  We  must  therefore  expect  no  estab- 
lished differentiation  of  parts  in  creatures  which  exhibit  no 
established  differences  of  position  in  their  parts;  and  we 
29 


426        THE   INSTABILITY   OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

must  expect  extremely  little  differentiation  of  parts  where 
the  differences  of  position  are  but  little  determined — which 
is  just  what  we  find.  This  negative  evidence  is 

borne  out  by  positive  evidence.  When  we  turn  from  these 
proteiform  specks  of  living  jelly  to  organisms  having  an 
unchanging  distribution  of  substance,  we  find  differences  of 
tissue  corresponding  to  differences  of  relative  position.  In 
all  the  higher  Protozoa,  as  also  in  the  Protopliyta,  we  meet 
with  a  fundamental  differentiation  into  cell-membrane  and 
cell-contents;  answering  to  that  fundamental  contrast  of 
conditions  implied  by  the  terms  outside  and  inside.  On 

passing  from  what  are  roughly  classed  as  unicellular  organ- 
isms, to  the  lowest  of  those  which  consist  of  aggregated  cells, 
we  equally  observe  the  connection  between  structural  differ- 
ences and  differences  of  circumstance.  Negatively,  we  see 
that  in  the  sponge,  permeated  throughout  by  currents  of  sea- 
water,  the  indefiniteness  of  organization  corresponds  with 
the  absence  of  definite  unlikeness  of  conditions :  the  periph- 
eral and  central  portions  are  as  little  contrasted  in  structure 
as  in  exposure  to  surrounding  agencies.  While  positively, 
we  see  that  in  a  form  like  the  ThalassicolZa,  which,  though 
equally  humble,  maintains  its  outer  and  inner  parts  in  per- 
manently unlike  circumstances,  there  is  displayed  a  rude 
structure  obviously  subordinated  to  the  primary  relations  of 
centre  and  surface:  in  all  its  many  and  important  varieties, 
the  parts  exhibit  a  more  or  less  concentric  arrangement. 

After  this  primary  modification,  by  which  the  outer  tis- 
sues are  differentiated  from  the  inner,  the  next  in  order  of 
constancy  and  importance  is  that  by  which  some  part  of  the 
outer  tissues  is  differentiated  from  the  rest;  and  this  corre- 
sponds with  the  almost  universal  fact  that  some  part  of  the 
outer  tissues  is  more  exposed  to  certain  environing  influences 
than  the  rest.  Here,  as  before,  the  apparent  exceptions  are 
extremely  significant.  Some  of  the  lowest  vegetal  organ- 
isms, as  the  Hematococci  and  Protococci,  evenly  imbedded 
in  a  mass  of  mucus,  or  dispersed  through  the  Arctic  snow, 


THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE   HOMOGENEOUS.         427 

display  no  differentiations  of  surface;  the  several  parts  of 
their  surfaces  being  subjected  to  no  definite  contrasts  of  con- 
ditions. Ciliated  spheres  such  as  the  Volvox  have  no  parts 
of  their  periphery  unlike  other  parts ;  and  it  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  they  should  have;  since,  as  they  revolve  in  all 
directions,  they  do  not,  in  traversing  the  water,  permanently 
expose  any  part  to  special  conditions.  But  when  we  come  to 
organisms  that  are  either  fixed,  or  while  moving  preserve 
definite  attitudes,  we  no  longer  find  uniformity  of  surface. 
The  most  general  fact  which  can  be  asserted  with  respect  to 
the  structures  of  plants  and  animals,  is,  that  however  much 
alike  in  shape  and  texture  the  various  parts  of  the  exterior 
may  at  first  be,  they  acquire  un likenesses  corresponding  to 
the  unlikenesses  of  their  relations  to  surrounding  agencies. 
The  ciliated  germ  of  a  Zoophyte,  which,  during  its  locomo- 
tive stage,  is  distinguishable  only  into  outer  and  inner  tis- 
sues, no  sooner  becomes  fixed,  than  its  upper  end  begins  to 
assume  a  different  structure  from  its  lower.  The  disc-shaped 
gemmcB  of  the  Marchantia,  originally  alike  on  both  surfaces, 
and  falling  at  random  with  either  side  uppermost,  imme- 
diately begin  to  develop  rootlets  on  the  under  side,  and 
stomata  on  the  upper  side:  a  fact  proving  beyond  ques- 
tion, that  this  primary  differentiation  is  determined  by  this 
fundamental  contrast  of  conditions. 

Of  course  in  the  germs  of  higher  organisms,  the  meta- 
morphoses immediately  due  to  the  instability  of  the  homo- 
geneous, are  soon  masked  by  those  due  to  the  assumption  of 
the  hereditary  type.  Such  early  changes,  however,  as  are 
common  to  all  classes  of  organisms,  and  so  cannot  be  ascribed 
to  heredity,  entirely  conform  to  the  hypothesis.  A  germ 
which  has  undergone  no  developmental  modifications,  con- 
sists of  a  spheroidal  group  of  homogeneous  cells.  Univer- 
sally, the  first  step  in  its  evolution  is  the  establishment  of  a 
difference  between  some  of  the  peripheral  cells  and  the  cells 
which  form  the  interior — some  of  the  peripheral  cells,  after 
repeated  spontaneous  fissions,  coalesce  into  a  membrane; 


428         THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

and  by  continuance  of  the  process  this  membrane  spreads 
until  it  speedily  invests  the  entire  mass,  as  in  mammals,  or, 
as  in  birds,  stops  short  of  that  for  some  time.  Here  we  have 
two  significant  facts.  The  first  is,  that  the  primary  unlike- 
ness  arises  between  the  exterior  and  the  interior.  The  sec- 
ond is,  that  the  change  which  thus  initiates  development, 
does  not  take  place  simultaneously  over  the  whole  exterior; 
but  commences  at  one  place,  and  gradually  involves  the 
rest.  Xow  these  facts  are  just  those  which  might  be  inferred 
from  the  instability  of  the  homogeneous.  The  surface  must, 
more  than  any  other  part,  become  unlike  the  centre,  because 
it  is  most  dissimilarly  conditioned;  and  all  parts  of  the  sur- 
face cannot  simultaneously  exhibit  this  differentiation,  be- 
cause they  cannot  be  exposed  to  the  incident  forces  with  ab- 
solute uniformity.  One  other  general  fact  of  like 
implication  remains.  Whatever  be  the  extent  of  this  periph- 
eral layer  of  cells,  or  blastoderm,  as  it  is  called,  it  presently 
divides  into  two  layers — the  serous  and  mucous;  or,  as  they 
have  been  otherwise  called,  the  ectoderm  and  the  endoderm. 
The  first  of  these  is  formed  from  that  portion  of  the  layer 
which  lies  in  contact  with  surrounding  agents;  and  the  sec- 
ond of  them  is  formed  from  that  portion  of  the  layer  which 
lies  in  contact  with  the  contained  mass  of  yelk.  That  is  to 
say,  after  the  primary  differentiation,  more  or  less  extensive, 
of  surface  from  centre,  the  resulting  superficial  portion  un- 
dergoes a  secondary  differentiation  into  inner  and  outer 
parts — a  differentiation  which  is  clearly  of  the  same  order 
with  the  preceding,  and  answers  to  the  next  most  marked 
contrast  of  conditions. 

But,  as  already  hinted,  this  principle,  understood  in  the 
simple  form  here  presented,  supplies  no  key  to  the  detailed 
phenomena  of  organic  development.  It  fails  entirely  to  ex- 
plain generic  and  specific  peculiarities;  and  indeed  leaves  us 
equally  in  the  dark  respecting  those  more  important  dis- 
tinctions by  which  families  and  orders  are  marked  out. 
Why  two  ova,  similarly  exposed  in  the  same  pool,  should 


THE  INSTABILITY    OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS.         429 

become  the  one  a  fish,  and  the  other  a  reptile,  it  cannot  tell 
us.  That  from  two  different  eggs  placed  under  the  same 
hen,  should  respectively  come  forth  a  duckling  and  a 
chicken,  is  a  fact  not  to  be  accounted  for  on  the  hypothesis 
above  developed.  We  have  here  no  alternative  but  to  fall 
back  upon  the  unexplained  principle  of  hereditary ,  trans- 
mission. The  capacity  possessed  by  an  unorganized  germ  of 
unfolding  into  a  complex  adult,  which  repeats  ancestral 
traits  in  the  minutest  details,  and  that  even  when  it  has  been 
placed  in  conditions  unlike  those  of  its  ancestors,  is  a  capa- 
city we  cannot  at  present  understand.  That  a  microscopic 
portion  of  seemingly  structureless  matter  should  embody  an 
influence  of  such  kind,  that  the  resulting  man  will  in  fifty 
years  after  become  gouty  or  insane,  is  a  truth  which  would 
be  incredible  were  it  not  daily  illustrated.  Should 

it  however  turn  out,  as  we  shall  hereafter  find  reason  for 
suspecting,  that  these  complex  differentiations  which  adults 
exhibit,  are  themselves  the  slowly  accumulated  and  trans- 
mitted results  of  a  process  like  that  seen  in  the  first  changes 
of  the  germ;  it  will  follow  that  even  those  embryonic 
changes  due  to  hereditary  influence,  are  remote  conse- 
quences of  the  alleged  law.  Should  it  be  shown  that  the 
slight  modifications  wrought  during  life  on  each  adult,  and 
bequeathed  to  offspring  along  with  all  like  preceding  modi- 
fications, are  themselves  unlikenesses  of  parts  that  are 
produced  by  unlikenesses  of  conditions;  then  it  will  follow- 
that  the  modifications  displayed  in  the  course  of  embryonic 
development,  are  partly  direct  consequences  of  the  insta- 
bility of  the  homogeneous,  and  partly  indirect  consequences 
of  it.  To  give  reasons  for  entertaining  this  hy- 

pothesis, however,  is  not  needful  for  the  justification  of  the 
position  here  taken.  It  is  enough  that  the  most  conspicuous 
differentiations  which  incipient  organisms  universally  dis- 
play, correspond  to  the  most  marked  differences  of  condi- 
tions to  which  their  parts  are  subject.  It  is  enough  that  the 
habitual  contrast  between  outside  and  inside,  which  we 


430         THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

know  is  produced  in  inorganic  masses  by  nnlikeness 
of  exposure  to  incident  forces,  is  strictly  paralleled  by 
the  first  contrast  that  makes  its  appearance  in  all  organic 
masses. 

It  remains  to  point  out  that  in  the  assemblage  of  organ- 
isms constituting  a  species,  the  principle  enunciated  is  equal- 
ly traceable.  "We  have  abundant  materials  for  the  induction 
that  each  species  will  not  remain  uniform,  but  is  ever  becom- 
ing to  some  extent  multiform;  and  there  is  ground  for  the 
deduction  that  this  lapse  from  homogeneity  to  heterogeneity 
is  caused  by  the  subjection  of  its  members  to  unlike  sets  of 
circumstances.  The  fact  that  in  every  species,  animal  and 
vegetal,  the  individuals  are  never  quite  alike;  joined  with 
the  fact  that  there  is  in  every  species  a  tendency  to  the  pro- 
duction of  differences  marked  enough  to  constitute  varieties ; 
form  a  sufficiently  wide  basis  for  the  induction.  While  the 
deduction  is  confirmed  by  the  familiar  experience  that  va- 
rieties are  most  numerous  and  decided  where,  as  among  cul- 
tivated plants  and  domestic  animals,  the  conditions  of  life 
depart  from  the  original  ones,  most  widely  and  in  the  most 
numerous  ways.  Whether  we  regard  "  natural  selection  " 
as  wholly,  or  only  in  part,  the  agency  through  which  varie- 
ties are  established,  matters  not  to  the  general  conclusion. 
For  as  the  survival  of  any  variety  proves  its  constitution  to 
be  in  harmony  with  a  certain  aggregate  of  surrounding 
forces — as  the  multiplication  of  a  variety  and  the  usurpation 
by  it  of  an  area  previously  occupied  by  some  other  part  of 
the  species,  implies  different  effects  produced  by  such  aggre- 
gate of  forces  on  the  two,  it  is  clear  that  this  aggregate  of 
forces  is  the  real  cause  of  the  differentiation — it  is  clear  that 
if  the  variety  supplants  the  original  species  in  some  locali- 
ties but  not  in  others,  it  does  so  because  the  aggregate  of 
forces  in  the  one  locality  is  unlike  that  in  the  other — it  is 
clear  that  the  lapse  of  the  species  from  a  state  of  homogene- 
ity to  a  state  of  heterogeneity  arises  from  the  exposure  of  its 
different  parts  to  different  aggregates  of  forces. 


THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS.         431 

§  153.  Among  mental  phenomena  it  is  difficult  to  estab- 
lish the  alleged  law  without  an  analysis  too  extensive  for  the 
occasion.  To  show  satisfactorily  how  states  of  conscious- 
ness, originally  homogeneous,  become  heterogeneous 
through  differences  in  the  changes  wrought  by  different 
forces,  would  require  us  carefully  to  trace  out  the  organiza- 
tion of  early  experiences.  Were  this  done  it  would  become 
manifest  that  the  development  of  intelligence,  is,  under  one 
of  its  chief  aspects,  a  dividing  into  separate  classes,  the  un- 
like things  previously  confounded  together  in  one  class — a 
formation  of  sub-classes  and  sub-sub-classes,  until  the  once 
confused  aggregate  of  objects  known,  is  resolved  into  an 
aggregate  which  unites  extreme  heterogeneity  among  its 
multiplied  groups,  with  complete  homogeneity  among  the 
members  of  each  group.  If,  for  example,  we  followed, 
through  ascending  grades  of  creatures,  the  genesis  of  that 
vast  structure  of  knowledge  acquired  by  sight,  we  should 
find  that  in  the  first  stage,  where  eyes  suffice  for  nothing  be- 
yond the  discrimination  of  light  from  darkness,  the  only  pos- 
sible classifications  of  objects  seen,  must  be  those  based  on 
the  manner  in  which  light  is  obstructed,  and  the  degree  in 
which  it  is  obstructed.  We  should  find  that  by  such  unde- 
veloped visual  organs,  the  shadows  traversing  the  rudi- 
mentary retina  would  be  merely  distinguished  into  those  of 
the  stationary  objects  which  the  creature  passed  during  its 
own  movements,  and  those  of  the  moving  objects  which 
came  near  the  creature  while  it  was  at  rest;  and  that  so  the 
extremely  general  classification  of  visible  things  into  sta- 
tionary and  moving,  would  be  the  earliest  formed.  We 
should  find  that  whereas  the  simplest  eyes  are  not  fitted  to 
distinguish  between  an  obstruction  of  light  caused  by  a  small 
object  close  to,  and  an  obstruction  caused  by  a  large  object 
at  some  distance,  eyes  a  little  more  developed  must  be  com- 
petent to  such  a  distinction ;  whence  must  result  a  vague  dif- 
ferentiation of  the  class  of  moving  objects,  into  the  nearer 
and  the  more  remote.    We  should  find  that  such  further  ini- 


432         THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

provements  in  vision  as  those  which  make  possible  a  better 
estimation  of  distances  by  adjustment  of  the  optic  axes,  and 
those  which,  through  enlargement  and  subdivision  of  the 
retina,  make  possible  the  discrimination  of  shapes,  must 
have  the  effects  of  giving  greater  definiteness  to  the  classes 
already  formed,  and  of  sub-dividing  these  into  smaller 
classes,  consisting  of  objects  less  unlike.  And  we  should 
find  that  each  additional  refinement  of  the  perceptive  or- 
gans, must  similarly  lead  to  a  multiplication  of  divisions 
and  a  sharpening  of  the  limits  of  each,  division.  In  every  in- 
fant might  be  traced  the  analogous  transformation  of  a  con- 
fused aggregate  of  impressions  of  surrounding  objects,  not 
recognized  as  differing  in  their  distances,  sizes,  and  shapes, 
into  separate  classes  of  objects  unlike  each  other  in  these  and 
various  other  respects.  And  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other, 
it  might  be  shown  that  the  change  from  this  first  indefinite, 
incoherent  and  comparatively  homogeneous  conscious- 
ness, to  a  definite,  coherent,  and  heterogeneous  one,  is  due  to 
differences  in  the  actions  of  incident  forces  on  the  or- 
ganism. These  brief  indications  of  what  might  be 
shown,  did  space  permit,  must  here  suffice.  Probably  they 
will  give  adequate  clue  to  an  argument  by  which  each  reader 
may  satisfy  himself  that  the  course  of  mental  evolution 
offers  no  exception  to  the  general  law.  In  further  aid  of 
such  an  argument,  I  will  here  add  an  illustration  that  is 
comprehensible  apart  from  the  process  of  mental  evolution 
as  a  whole. 

It  has  been  remarked  (I  am  told  by  Coleridge,  though  I 
have  been  unable  to  find  the  passage)  that  with  the  advance 
of  language,  words  which  were  originally  alike  in  their 
meanings  acquire  unlike  meanings — a  change  which  he 
expresses  by  the  formidable  word  "  desynonymization." 
Among  indigenous  words  this  loss  of  equivalence  cannot 
be  clearly  shown ;  because  in  them  the  divergencies  of  mean- 
ing began  before  the  dawn  of  literature.  But  among  words 
that  have  been  coined,  or  adopted  from  other  languages, 


THE  INSTABILITY   OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS.         433 

since  the  writing  of  books  commenced,  it  is  demonstrable. 
In  the  old  divines,  rriiscrecmt  is  used  in  its  etymological 
sense  of  unbeliever ;  but  in  modern  speech  it  has  entirely 
lost  this  sense.  Similarly  with  evil-doer  and  malefactor: 
exactly  synonymous  as  these  are  by  derivation,  they  are  no 
longer  synonymous  by  usage  :  by  a  malefactor  we  now 
understand  a  convicted  criminal,  which  is  far  from  being 
the  acceptation  of  evil-doer.  The  verb  produce,  bears  in 
Euclid  its  primary  meaning — to  prolong,  or  draw  out  /  but 
the  now  largely  developed  meanings  of  produce  have  little  in 
common  with  the  meanings  of  prolong,  or  draw  out.  In  the 
Church  of  England  liturgy,  an  odd  effect  results  from  the  oc- 
currence of  prevent  in  its  original  sense — to  come  before,  in- 
stead of  its  modern  specialized  sense — to  come  before  with  the 
effect  of  arresting .  But  the  most  conclusive  cases  are  those 
in  which  the  contrasted  words  consist  of  the  same  parts  differ- 
ently combined  ;  as  in  go  under  and  undergo.  We  go  under 
a  tree,  and  we  undergo  a  pain.  Bat  though,  if  analytically 
considered,  the  meanings  of  these  expressions  would  be  the 
same  were  the  words  transposed,  habit  has  so  far  modified 
their  meanings  that  we  could  not  without  absurdity  speak  of 
undergoing  a  tree  and  going  under  a  pain.  Countless 

such  instances  might  be  brought  to  show  that  between  two 
words  which  are  originally  of  like  force,  an  equilibrium 
cannot  be  maintained.  Unless  they  are  daily  used  in  exact- 
ly equal  degrees,  in  exactly  similar  relations  (against  which 
there  are  infinite  probabilities),  there  necessarily  arises  a 
habit  of  associating  one  rather  than  the  other  with  particular 
acts,  or  objects.  Such  a  habit,  once  commenced,  becomes 
confirmed;  and  gradually  their  homogeneity  of  meaning 
disappears.  In  each  individual  we  may  see  the  tendency 
which  inevitably  leads  to  this  result.  A  certain  vocabu- 
lary and  a  certain  set  of  phrases,  distinguish  the  speech  of 
each  person:  each  person  habitually  uses  certain  words  in 
places  where  other  words  are  habitually  used  by  other  per- 
sons; and  there  is  a  continual  recurrence  of  favourite  ex- 


434        THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

pressions.  This  inability  to  maintain  a  balance  in  the  use  of 
verbal  symbols,  which  characterizes  every  man,  character- 
izes, by  consequence,  aggregates  of  men ;  and  the  desynony- 
mization  of  words  is  the  ultimate  effect. 

Should  any  difficulty  be  felt  in  understanding  how  these 
mental  changes  exemplify  a  law  of  physical  transformations 
that  are  wrought  by  physical  forces,  it  will  disappear  on  con- 
templating acts  of  mind  as  nervous  functions.  It  will  be 
seen  that  each  loss  of  equilibrium  above  instanced,  is  a  loss  of 
functional  equality  between  some  two  elements  of  the  nerv- 
ous system.  And  it  will  be  seen  that,  as  in  other  cases,  this 
loss  of  functional  equality  is  due  to  differences  in  the  inci- 
dence of  forces. 

§  154.  Masses  of  men,  in  common  with  all  other  masses, 
show  a  like  proclivity  similarly  caused.  Small  combinations 
and  large  societies  equally  manifest  it;  and  in  the  one,  as  in 
the  other,  both  governmental  and  industrial  differentiations 
are  initiated  by  it.  Let  us  glance  at  the  facts  under  these 
two  heads. 

A  business  partnership,  balanced  as  the  authorities  of  its 
members  may  theoretically  be,  practically  becomes  a  union 
in  which  the  authority  of  one  partner  is  tacitly  recognized  as 
greater  than  that  of  the  other  or  others.  Though  the  share- 
holders have  given  equal  powers  to  the  directors  of  their 
company,  inequalites  of  power  soon  arise  among  them;  and 
usually  the  supremacy  of  some  one  director  grows  so 
marked,  that  his  decisions  determine  the  course  which  the 
board  takes.  Nor  in  associations  for  political,  charitable,  lit- 
erary, or  other  purposes,  do  we  fail  to  find  a  like  process  of 
division  into  dominant  and  subordinate  parties;  each  having 
its  leader,  its  members  of  less  influence,  and  its  mass  of  un- 
influential  members.  These  minor  instances  in  which  unor- 
ganized groups  of  men,  standing  in  homogeneous  relations, 
may  be  watched  gradually  passing  into  organized  groups  of 
men  standing  in  heterogeneous  relations,  give  us  the  key  to 


THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS.         435 

social  inequalities.  Barbarous  and  civilized  communities 
are  alike  characterized  by  separation  into  classes,  as  well 
as  by  separation  of  each  class  into  more  important  and  less 
important  units;  and  this  structure  is  manifestly  the  grad- 
ually-consolidated result  of  a  process  like  that  daily  exem- 
plified in  trading  and  other  combinations.  So  long  as 
men  are  constituted  to  act  on  one  another,  either  by  physi- 
cal force  or  by  force  of  character,  the  struggles  for  suprem- 
acy must  finally  be  decided  in  favour  of  some  one;  and  the 
difference  once  commenced  must  tend  to  become  ever  more 
marked.  Its  unstable  equilibrium  being  destroyed,  the 
uniform  must  gravitate  with  increasing  rapidity  into  the 
multiform.  And  so  supremacy  and  subordination  must  es- 
tablish themselves,  as  we  see  they  do,  throughout  the  whole 
structure  of  a  society,  from  the  great  class-divisions  pervad- 
ing its  entire  body,  down  to  village  cliques,  and  even  down 
to  every  posse  of  school-boys.  Probably  it  will 

be  objected  that  such  changes  result,  not  from  the  homoge- 
neity of  the  original  aggregations,  but  from  their  non-homo- 
geneity— from  certain  slight  differences  existing  among 
their  units  at  the  outset.  This  is  doubtless  the  proximate 
cause.  In  strictness,  such  changes  must  be  regarded  as 
transformations  of  the  relatively  homogeneous  into  the  rela- 
tively heterogeneous.  But  it  is  abundantly  clear  that  an 
aggregation  of  men,  absolutely  alike  in  their  endowments, 
would  eventually  undergo  a  similar  transformation.  For  in 
the  absence  of  perfect  uniformity  in  the  lives  severally  led 
by  them — in  their  occupations,  physical  conditions,  domestic 
relations,  and  trains  of  thought  and  feeling — there  must 
arise  differences  among  them ;  and  these  must  finally  initiate 
social  differentiations.  Even  inequalities  of  health  caused 
by  accidents,  must,  by  entailing  inequalities  of  physical  and 
mental  power,  disturb  the  exact  balance  of  mutual  influ- 
ences among  the  units;  and  the  balance  once  disturbed, 
must  inevitably  be  lost.  Whence,  indeed,  besides  seeing 
that  a  body  of  men  absolutely  homogeneous  in  their  gov- 


436         THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE   HOMOGENEOUS. 

ernmental  relations,  must,  like  all  other  homogeneous  bod- 
ies, become  heterogeneous,  we  also  see  that  it  must  do  this 
from  the  same  ultimate  cause — unequal  exposure  of  its 
parts  to  incident  forces. 

The  first  industrial  divisions  of  societies  are  much  more 
obviously  due  to  unlikenesses  of  external  circumstances. 
Such  divisions  are  absent  until  such  unlikenesses  are  estab- 
lished. Nomadic  tribes  do  not  permanently  expose  any 
groups  of  their  members  to  special  local  conditions;  nor  does 
a  stationary  tribe,  when  occupying  only  a  small  area,  main- 
tain from  generation  to  generation  marked  contrasts  in  the 
local  conditions  of  its  members ;  and  in  such  tribes  there  are 
no  decided  economical  differentiations.  But  a  community 
which,  growing  populous,  has  overspread  a  large  tract,  and 
has  become  so  far  settled  that  its  members  live  and  die  in 
their  respective  districts,  keeps  its  several  sections  in  differ- 
ent physical  circumstances ;  and  then  they  no  longer  remain 
alike  in  their  occupations.  Those  who  live  dispersed  con- 
tinue to  hunt  or  cultivate  the  earth ;  those  who  spread  to  the 
sea-shore  fall  into  maritime  occupations;  while  the  inhabit- 
ants of  some  spot  chosen,  perhaps  for  its  centrality,  as  one  of 
periodical  assemblage,  become  traders,  and  a  town  springs 
up.  Each  of  these  classes  undergoes  a  modification  of  char- 
acter consequent  on  its  function,  and  better  fitting  it  to  its 
function.  Later  in  the  process  of  social  evolution  these  local 
adaptations  are  greatly  multiplied.  A  result  of  differences  in 
soil  and  climate,  is  that  the  rural  inhabitants  in  different 
parts  of  the  kingdom  have  their  occupations  partially  spe- 
cialized; and  become  respectively  distinguished  as  chiefly 
producing  cattle,  or  sheep,  or  wheat,  or  oats,  or  hops,  or 
cyder.  People  living  where  coal-fields  are  discovered  are 
transformed  into  colliers;  Cornishmen  take  to  mining  be- 
cause Cornwall  is  metalliferous;  and  the  iron-manufacture 
is  the  dominant  industry  where  iron-stone  is  plentiful. 
Liverpool  has  assumed  the  office  of  importing  cotton,  in  con- 
sequence of  its  proximity  to  the  district  where  cotton  goods 


THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS.         437 

are  made;  and  for  analogous  reasons,  Hull  has  become  the 
chief  port  at  which  foreign  wools  are  brought  in.  Even  in 
the  establishment  of  breweries,  of  dye-works,  of  slate-quar- 
ries, of  brick-yards,  we  may  see  the  same  truth.  So  that  both 
in  general  and  in  detail,  the  specializations  of  the  social  or- 
ganism which  characterize  separate  districts,  primarily  de- 
pend on  local  circumstances.  Those  divisions  of  labour 
which  under  another  aspect  were  interpreted  as  due  to  the 
setting  up  of  motion  in  the  directions  of  least  resistance 
(§  80),  are  here  interpreted  as  due  to  differences  in  the  in- 
cident forces;  and  the  two  interpretations  are  quite  consist- 
ent with  each  other.  For  that  which  in  each  case  deter- 
mines the  direction  of  least  resistance,  is  the  distribution  of 
the  forces  to  be  overcome;  and  hence  unlikenesses  of  distri- 
bution in  separate  localities,  entails  unlikenesses  in  the 
course  of  human  action  in  those  localities — entails  indus- 
trial differentiations. 

§  155.  It  has  still  to  be  shown  that  this  general  truth  is 
demonstrable  a  priori.  We  have  to  prove  specifically  that 
the  instability  of  the  homogeneous  is  a  corollary  from  the 
persistence  of  force.  Already  this  has  been  tacitly  implied 
by  assigning  unlikeness  in  the-  exposure  of  its  parts  to  sur- 
rounding agencies,  as  the  reason  why  a  uniform  mass  loses 
its  uniformity.  But  here  it  will  be  proper  to  expand  this 
tacit  implication  into  definite  proof. 

On  striking  a  mass  of  matter  with  such  force  as  either  to 
indent  it  or  make  it  fly  to  pieces,  we  see  both  that  the  blow 
affects  differently  its  different  parts,  and  that  the  differences 
are  consequent  on  the  unlike  relations  of  its  parts  to  the 
force  impressed.  The  part  with  which  the  striking  body 
comes  in  contact,  receiving  the  whole  of  the  communicated 
momentum,  is  driven  in  towards  the  centre  of  the  mass. 
It  thus  compresses  and  tends  to  displace  the  more  centrally 
situated  portions  of  the  mass.  These,  however,  cannot  be 
compressed  or  thrust  out  of  their  places  without  pressing  on 


438         THE   INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

all  surrounding  portions.  And  when  the  blow  is  violent 
enough  to  fracture  the  mass,  we  see,  in  the  radial  dispersion 
of  its  fragments,  that  the  original  momentum,  in  being  dis- 
tributed throughout  it,  has  been  divided  into  numerous 
minor  momenta,  unlike  in  their  directions.  We  see  that 
these  directions  are  determined  by  the  positions  of  the  parts 
with  respect  to  each  other,  and  with  respect  to  the  point  of 
impact.  AVe  see  that  the  parts  are  differently  affected  by 
the  disruptive  force,  because  they  are  differently  related  to 
it  in  their  directions  and  attachments — that  the  effects  being 
the  joint  products  of  the  cause  and  the  conditions,  cannot  be 
alike  in  parts  which  are  differently  conditioned.  A 

body  on  which  radiant  heat  is  falling,  exemplifies  this  truth 
still  more  clearly.  Taking  the  simplest  case  (that  of  a 
sphere)  we  see  that  while  the  part  nearest  to  the  radiating 
centre  receives  the  rays  at  right  angles,  the  rays  strike  the 
other  parts  of  the  exposed  side  at  all  angles  from  90°  down 
to  0°.  Again,  the  molecular  vibrations  propagated  through 
the  mass  from  the  surface  which  receives  the  heat,  must  pro- 
ceed inwards  at  angles  differing  for  each  point.  Further, 
the  interior  parts  of  the  sphere  affected  by  the  vibrations 
proceeding  from  all  points  of  the  heated  side,  must  be  dis- 
similarly affected  in  proportion  as  their  positions  are  dis- 
similar. So  that  whether  they  be  on  the  recipient  area,  in 
the  middle,  or  at  the  remote  side,  the  constituent  atoms  are 
all  thrown  into  states  of  vibration  more  or  less  unlike  each 
other. 

But  now,  what  is  the  ultimate  meaning  of  the  conclusion 
that  a  uniform  force  produces  different  changes  throughout 
a  uniform  mass,  because  the  parts  of  the  mass  stand  in  differ- 
ent relations  to  the  force?  Fully  to  understand  this,  we 
must  contemplate  each  part  as  simultaneously  subject  to 
other  forces — those  of  gravitation,  of  cohesion,  of  molecular 
motion,  &c.  The  effect  wrought  by  an  additional  force, 
must  be  a  resultant  of  it  and  the  forces  already  in  action.  If 
the  forces  already  in  action  on  two  parts  of  any  aggre- 


THE   INSTABILITY  OP  THE   HOMOGENEOUS.         439 

gate,  are  different  in  their  directions,  the  effects  produced  on 
these  two  parts  by  like  forces  must  be  different  in  their  di- 
rections. Why  must  they  be  different?  They  must  be  dif- 
ferent because  such  unlikeness  as  exists  between  the  two 
sets  of  factors,  is  made  by  the  presence  in  the  one  of  some 
specially-directed  force  that  is  not  present  in  the  other ;  and 
that  this  force  will  produce  an  effect,  rendering  the  total  re- 
sult in  the  one  case  unlike  that  in  the  other,  is  a  necessary 
corollary  from  the  persistence  of  force.  Still  more 

manifest  does  it  become  that  the  dissimilarly-placed  parts  of 
any  aggregate  must  be  dissimilarly  modified  by  an  incident 
force,  when  we  remember  that  the  quantities  of  the  incident 
force  to  which  they  are  severally  subject,  are  not  equal,  as 
above  supposed;  but  are  nearly  always  very  unequal.  The 
outer  parts  of  masses  are  usually  alone  exposed  to  chemical 
actions ;  and  not  only  are  their  inner  parts  shielded  from  the 
affinities  of  external  elements,  but  such  affinities  are  brought 
to  bear  unequally  on  their  surfaces;  since  chemical  action 
sets  up  currents  through  the  medium  in  which  it  takes  place, 
and  so  brings  to  the  various  parts  of  the  surface  unequal 
quantities  of  the  active  agent.  Again,  the  amounts  of  any 
external  radiant  force  which  the  different  parts  of  an  aggre- 
gate receive,  are  widely  contrasted:  we  have  the  contrast 
between  the  quantity  falling  on  the  side  next  the  radiat- 
ing centre,  and  the  quantity,  or  rather  no  quantity,  falling 
on  the  opposite  side ;  we  have  contrasts  in  the  quantities  re- 
ceived by  differently-placed  areas  on  the  exposed  side;  and 
we  have  endless  contrasts  between  the  quantities  received 
by  the  various  parts  of  the  interior.  Similarly  when  me- 
chanical force  is  expended  on  any  aggregate,  either  by  col- 
lision, continuous  pressure,  or  tension,  the  amounts  of  strain 
distributed  throughout  the  mass  are  manifestly  unlike  for 
unlike  positions.  But  to  say  the  different  parts  of  an  aggre- 
gate receive  different  quantities  of  any  incident  force,  is  to 
say  that  their  states  are  modified  by  it  in  different  degrees 
— is  to  say  that  if  they  were  before  homogeneous  in  their 


440         THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  HOMOGENEOUS. 

relations  they  must  be  rendered  to  a  proportionate  extent 
heterogeneous;  since,  force  being  persistent,  the  different 
quantities  of  it  falling  on  the  different  parts,  must 
work  in  them  different  quantities  of  effect — different 
changes.  Yet  one  more  kindred  deduction  is  re- 

quired to  complete  the  argument.  We  may,  by  parallel 
reasoning,  reach  the  conclusion  that,  even  apart  from  the 
action  of  any  external  force,  the  equilibrium  of  a  homo- 
geneous aggregate  must  be  destroyed  by  the  unequal  ac- 
tions of  its  parts  on  each  other.  That  mutual  influence 
which  produces  aggregation  (not  to  mention  other  mutual 
influences)  must  work  different  effects  on  the  different  parts; 
since  they  are  severalty  exposed  to  it  in  unlike  amounts  and 
directions.  This  will  be  clearly  seen  on  remembering  that 
the  portions  of  which  the  whole  is  made  up,  may  be  sever- 
ally regarded  as  minor  wholes;  that  on  each  of  these  minor 
wholes,  the  action  of  the  entire  aggregate  then  becomes 
an  external  incident  force;  that  such  external  incident 
force  must,  as  above  shown,  work  unlike  changes  in  the 
parts  of  any  such  minor  whole ;  and  that  if  the  minor  wholes 
are  severally  thus  rendered  heterogeneous,  the  entire  aggre- 
gate is  rendered  homogeneous. 

The  instability  of  the  homogeneous  is  thus  deducible 
from  that  primordial  truth  which  underlies  our  intelligence. 
One  stable  homogeneity  only,  is  hypothetically  possible.  If 
centres  of  force,  absolutely  uniform  in  their  powers,  were 
diffused  with  absolute  uniformity  through  unlimited  space, 
they  would  remain  in  equilibrium.  This  however,  though  a 
verbally  intelligible  supposition,  is  one  that  cannot  be  repre- 
sented in  thought;  since  unlimited  space  is  inconceivable. 
But  all  finite  forms  of  the  homogeneous — all  forms  of  it 
which  we  can  know  or  conceive,  must  inevitably  lapse  into 
heterogeneity.  In  three  several  ways  does  the  persistence 
of  force  necessitate  this.  Setting  external  agencies  aside, 
each  unit  of  a  homogeneous  whole  must  be  differently  affect- 
ed from  any  of  the  rest  by  the  aggregate  action  of  the  rest 


THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE   HOMOGENEOUS.         441 

upon  it.  The  resultant  force  exercised  by  the  aggregate  on 
each  unit,  being  in  no  two  cases  alike  in  both  amount  and 
direction,  and  usually  not  in  either,  any  incident  force,  even 
if  uniform  in  amount  and  direction,  cannot  produce  like  ef- 
fects on  the  units.  And  the  various  positions  of  the  parts  in 
relation  to  any  incident  force,  preventing  them  from  receiv- 
ing it  in  uniform  amounts  and  directions,  a  further  differ- 
ence in  the  effects  wrought  on  them  is  inevitably  produced. 
One  further  remark  is  needed.  To  the  conclusion  that 
the  changes  with  which  Evolution  commences,  are  thus  ne- 
cessitated, remains  to  be  added  the  conclusion  that  these 
changes  must  continue.  The  absolutely  homogeneous  must 
lose  its  equilibrium;  and  the  relatively  homogeneous  must 
lapse  into  the  relatively  less  homogeneous.  That  which 
is  true  of  any  total  mass,  is  true  of  the  parts  into  which 
it  segregates.  The  uniformity  of  each  such  part  must  as 
inevitably  be  lost  in  multiformity,  as  was  that  of  the  orig- 
inal whole;  and  for  like  reasons.  And  thus  the  continued 
changes  which  characterize  Evolution,  in  so  far  as  they  are 
constituted  by  the  lapse  of  the  homogeneous  into  the  hetero- 
geneous, and  of  the  less  heterogeneous  into  the  more  hetero- 
geneous, are  necessary  consequences  of  the  persistence  of 
force. 


30 


CHAPTER  XX. 

THE    MULTIPLICATION    OF    EFFECTS. 

§  156.  To  the  cause  of  increasing  complexity  set  forth 
in  the  last  chapter,  we  have  in  this  chapter  to  add  another. 
Though  secondary  in  order  of  time,  it  is  scarcely  secondary 
in  order  of  importance.  Even  in  the  absence  of  the  cause 
already  assigned,  it  would  necessitate  a  change  from  the 
homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous;  and  joined  with  it,  it 
makes  this  change  both  more  rapid  and  more  involved.  To 
come  in  sight  of  it,  we  have  but  to  pursue  a  step  further, 
that  conflict  between  force  and  matter  already  delineated. 
Let  us  do  this. 

When  a  uniform  aggregate  is  subject  to  a  uniform  force, 
we  have  seen  that  its  constituents,  being  differently  condi- 
tioned, are  differently  modified.  But  while  we  have  con- 
templated the  various  parts  of  the  aggregate  as  thus  under- 
going unlike  changes,  we  have  not  yet  contemplated  the  un- 
like changes  simultaneously  produced  on  the  various  parts 
of  the  incident  force.  These  must  be  as  numerous  and  im- 
portant as  the  others.  Action  and  re-action  being  equal 
and  opposite,  it  follows  that  in  differentiating  the  parts  on 
which  it  falls  in  unlike  ways,  the  incident  force  must  itself 
be  correspondingly  differentiated.  Instead  of  being  as  be- 
fore, a  uniform  force,  it  must  thereafter  be  a  multiform 
force — a  group  of  dissimilar  forces.  A  few  illustrations  will 
make  this  truth  manifest. 

A  single  force  is  divided  by  conflict  with  matter  into 
442 


THE  MULTIPLICATION  OP  EFFECTS.  443 

forces  that  widely  diverge.  In  the  case  lately  cited,  of  a 
body  shattered  by  violent  collision,  besides  the  change  of  the 
homogeneous  mass  into  a  heterogeneous  group  of  scattered 
fragments,  there  is  a  change  of  the  homogeneous  mo- 
mentum into  a  group  of  momenta,  heterogeneous  in  both 
amounts  and  directions.  Similarly  with  the  forces  we  know 
as  light  and  heat.  After  the  dispersion  of  these  by  a  radiat- 
ing body  towards  all  points,  they  are  re-dispersed  towards  all 
points  by  the  bodies  on  which  they  fall.  Of  the  Sun's  rays, 
issuing  from  him  on  every  side,  some  few  strike  the  Moon. 
These  being  reflected  at  all  angles  from  the  Moon's  sur- 
face, some  few  of  them  strike  the  Earth.  By  a  like 
process  the  few  which  reach  the  Earth  are  again  diffused, 
through  surrounding  space.  And  on  each  occasion,  such 
portions  of  the  rays  as  are  absorbed  instead  of  reflected, 
undergo  refractions  that  equally  destroy  their  parallel- 
ism. More  than  this  is  true.  By  conflict  with 
matter,  a  uniform  force  is  in  part  changed  into  forces 
differing  in  their  directions;  and  in  part  it  is  changed  into 
forces  differing  in  their  kinds.  When  one  body  is  struck 
against  another,  that  which  we  usually  regard  as  the  effect, 
is  a  change  of  position  or  motion  in  one  or  both  bodies.  But 
a  moment's  thought  shows  that  this  is  a  very  incomplete 
view  of  the  matter.  Besides  the  visible  mechanical  result, 
sound  is  produced;  or,  to  speak  accurately,  a  vibration  in 
one  or  both  bodies,  and  in  the  surrounding  air:  and  under 
some  circumstances  we  call  this  the  effect.  Moreover,  the 
air  has  not  simply  been  made  to  vibrate,  but  has  had  currents 
raised  in  it  by  the  transit  of  the  bodies.  Further,  if  there  is 
not  that  great  structural  change  which  we  call  fracture, 
there  is  a  disarrangement  of  the  particles  of  the  two  bodies 
around  their  point  of  collision ;  amounting  in  some  cases  to 
a  visible  condensation.  Yet  more,  this  condensation  is  ac- 
companied by  disengagement  of  heat.  In  some  cases  a 
spark — that  is,  light — results,  from  the  incandescence  of  a 
portion  struck  off ;  and  occasionally  this  incandescence  is  as- 


44:4  THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS. 

sociated  with  chemical  combination.  Thus,  by  the  original 
mechanical  force  expended  in  the  collision,  at  least  five,  and 
often  more,  different  kinds  of  forces  have  been  produced. 
Take,  again,  the  lighting  of  a  candle.  Primarily,  this  is  a 
chemical  change  consequent  on  a  rise  of  temperature.  The 
process  of  combination  having  once  been  set  going  by  ex- 
traneous  heat,  there  is  a  continued  formation  of  carbonic 
acid,  water,  <fcc, — in  itself  a  result  more  complex  than  the 
extraneous  heat  that  first  caused  it.  But  along  with  this 
process  of  combination  there  is  a  production  of  heat ;  there  is 
a  production  of  light;  there  is  an  ascending  column  of  hot 
gases  generated;  there  are  currents  established  in  the  sur- 
rounding air.  i^"or  does  the  decomposition  of  one  force  into 
many  forces  end  here.  Each  of  the  several  changes  worked 
becomes  the  parent  of  further  changes.  The  carbonic  acid 
formed,  will  by  and  by  combine  with  some  base;  or  under 
the  influence  of  sunshine  give  up  its  carbon  to  the  leaf  of  a 
plant.  The  water  will  modify  the  hygrometric  state  of  the 
air  around ;  or,  if  the  current  of  hot  gases  containing  it  come 
against  a  cold  body,  will  be  condensed:  altering  the  tempera- 
ture, and  perhaps  the  chemical  state,  of  the  surface  it  covers. 
The  heat  given  out  melts  the  subjacent  tallow,  and  expands 
whatever  it  warms.  The  light,  falling  on  various  sub- 
stances, calls  forth  from  them  reactions  by  which  it  is  modi- 
fied; and  so  divers  colours  are  produced.  Similarly  even 
with  these  secondary  actions,  which  may  be  traced  out  into 
ever-multijflying  ramifications,  until  they  become  too  mi- 
nute to  be  appreciated.  Universally,  then,  the 
effect  is  more  complex  than  the  cause.  Whether  the  aggre- 
gate on  which  it  falls  be  homogeneous  or  otherwise,  an  inci- 
dent force  is  transformed  by  the  conflict  into  a  number  of 
forces  that  differ  in  their  amounts,  or  directions,  or  kinds ;  or 
in  all  these  respects.  And  of  this  group  of  variously-modi- 
fied forces,  each  ultimately  undergoes  a  like  transfor- 
mation. 

Let  us  now  mark  how  the  process  of  evolution  is  fur- 


THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS.  445 

thered  by  this  multiplication  of  effects.  An  incident  force 
decomposed  by  the  reactions  of  a  body  into  a  group  of  un- 
like forces — a  uniform  force  thus  reduced  to  a  multiform 
force — becomes  the  cause  of  a  secondary  increase  of  multi- 
formity in  the  body  which  decomposes  it.  In  the  last  chap- 
ter we  saw  that  the  several  parts  of  an  aggregate  are  differ- 
ently modified  by  any  incident  force.  It  has  just  been 
shown  that  by  the  reactions  of  the  differently  modified  parts, 
the  incident  force  itself  must  be  divided  into  differently 
modified  parts.  Here  it  remains  to  point  out  that  each  dif- 
ferentiated division  of  the  aggregate,  thus  becomes  a  centre 
from  which  a  differentiated  division  of  the  original  force  is 
again  diffused.  And  since  unlike  forces  must  produce 
unlike  results,  each  of  these  differentiated  forces  must 
produce,  throughout  the  aggregate,  a  further  series  of  differ- 
entiations. This  secondary  cause  of  the  change 
from  homogeneity  to  heterogeneity,  obviously  becomes 
more  potent  in  proportion  as  the  heterogeneity  increases. 
When  the  parts  into  which  any  evolving  whole  has  segre- 
gated itself,  have  diverged  widely  in  nature,  they  will  neces- 
sarily react  very  diversely  on  any  incident  force — they  will 
divide  an  incident  force  into  so  many  strongly  contrasted 
groups  of  forces.  And  each  of  them  becoming  the  centre 
of  a  quite  distinct  set  of  influences,  must  add  to  the  num- 
ber of  distinct  secondary  changes  wrought  throughout  the 
aggregate.  Yet  another  corollary  must  be  added. 
The  number  of  unlike  parts  of  which  an  aggregate  consists, 
as  well  as  the  degree  of  their  unlikeness,  is  an  important 
factor  in  the  process.  Every  additional  specialized  division 
is  an  additional  centre  of  specialized  forces.  If  a  uniform 
whole,  in  being  itself  made  multiform  by  an  incident  force, 
makes  the  incident  force  multiform ;  if  a  whole  consisting  of 
two  unlike  sections,  divides  an  incident  force  into  two  un- 
like groups  of  multiform  forces;  it  is  clear  that  each  new 
unlike  section  must  be  a  further  source  of  complication 
among  the  forces  at  work  throughout  the  mass — a  further 


446  THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS. 

source  of  heterogeneity.  The  multiplication  of  effects  must 
proceed  in  geometrical  progression.  Each  stage  of  evolu- 
tion must  initiate  a  higher  stage. 

§  157.  The  force  of  aggregation  acting  on  irregular 
masses  of  rare  matter,  diffused  through  a  resisting  medium, 
will  not  cause  such  masses  to  move  in  straight  lines  to  their 
common  centre  of  gravity;  but,  as  before  said,  each  will 
take  a  curvilinear  path,  directed  to  one  or  other  side  of  the 
centre  of  gravity.  All  of  them  being  differently  condi- 
tioned, gravitation  will  impress  on  each  a  motion  differing 
in  direction,  in  velocity,  and  in  the  degree  of  its  curvature 
— uniform  aggregative  force  will  be  differentiated  into 
multiform  momenta.  The  process  thus  commenced,  must 
go  on  till  it  produces  a  single  mass  of  nebulous  matter;  and 
these  independent  curvilinear  motions  must  result  in  a 
movement  of  this  mass  round  its  axis:  a  simultaneous  con- 
densation and  rotation  in  which  we  see  how  two  effects  of  the 
aggregative  force,  at  first  but  slightly  divergent,  become  at 
last  widely  differentiated.  A  gradual  increase  of  oblateness 
in  this  revolving  spheroid,  must  take  place  through  the  joint 
action  of  these  two  forces,  as  the  bulk  diminishes  and  the  ro- 
tation grows  more  rapid ;  and  this  we  may  set  down  as  a  third 
effect.  The  genesis  of  heat,  which  must  accompany  aug- 
mentation of  density,  is  a  consequence  of  yet  another  order 
— a  consequence  by  no  means  simple;  since  the  various 
parts  of  the  mass,  being  variously  condensed,  must  be  vari- 
ously heated.  Acting  throughout  a  gaseous  spheroid,  of 
which  the  parts  are  unlike  in  their  temperatures,  the  forces 
of  aggregation  and  rotation  must  work  a  further  series  of 
changes :  they  must  set  up  circulating  currents,  both  general 
and  local.  At  a  later  stage  light  as  well  as  heat  will  be  gen- 
erated. Thus  without  dwelling  on  the  likelihood  of  chemi- 
cal combinations  and  electric  disturbances,  it  is  sufficiently 
manifest  that,  supposing  matter  to  have  originally  existed  in 
a  diffused  state,  the  once  uniform  force  which  caused  its 


THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS.  447 

aggregation,  must  have  become  gradually  divided  into  dif- 
ferent forces:  and  that  each  further  stage  of  complication 
in  the  resulting  aggregate,  must  have  initiated  further  sub- 
divisions of  this  force — a  further  multiplication  of  effects, 
increasing  the  previous  heterogeneity. 

This  section  of  the  argument  may  however  be  adequate- 
ly sustained,  without  having  recourse  to  any  such  hypotheti- 
cal illustrations  as  the  foregoing.  The  astronomical  attri- 
butes of  the  Earth,  will  even  alone  suffice  our  purpose. 
Consider  first  the  effects  of  its  momentum  round  its  axis. 
There  is  the  oblateness  of  its  form;  there  is  the  alternation 
of  day  and  night;  there  are  certain  constant  marine  cur- 
rents; and  there  are  certain  constant  aerial  currents.  Con- 
sider next  the  secondary  series  of  consequences  due  to  the 
divergence  of  the  Earth's  plane  of  rotation  from  the  plane 
of  its  orbit.  The  many  differences  of  the  seasons,  both 
simultaneous  and  successive,  which  pervade  its  surface,  are 
thus  caused.  External  attraction  acting  on  this  rotating 
oblate  spheroid  with  inclined  axis,  produces  the  motion 
called  nutation,  and  that  slower  and  larger  one  from  which 
follows  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  with  its  several  se- 
quences. And  then  by  this  same  force  are  generated  the 
tides,  aqueous  and  atmospheric. 

Perhaps,  however,  the  simplest  way  of  showing  the  mul- 
tiplication of  effects  among  phenomena  of  this  order,  will  be 
to  set  down  the  influences  of  any  member  of  the  Solar  Sys- 
tem on  the  rest.  A  planet  directly  produces  in  neighbour- 
ing planets  certain  appreciable  perturbations,  complicating 
those  otherwise  produced  in  them ;  and  in  the  remoter  plan- 
ets it  directly  produces  certain  less  visible  perturbations. 
Here  is  a  first  series  of  effects.  But  each  of  the  perturbed 
planets  is  itself  a  source  of  perturbations — each  directly 
affects  all  the  others.  Hence,  planet  A  having  drawn  planet 
B  out  of  the  position  it  would  have  occupied  in  A's  absence, 
the  perturbations  which  B  causes  are  different  from  what 
they  would  else  have  been ;  and  similarly  with  C,  D,  E,  &c. 


448  THE   MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS. 

Here  then  is  a  secondary  series  of  effects :  far  more  numerous 
though  far  smaller  in  their  amounts.  As  these  indirect  per- 
turbations must  to  some  extent  modify  the  movements  of 
each  planet,  there  results  from  them  a  tertiary  series;  and 
so  on  continually.  Thus  the  force  exercised  by  any  planet 
works  a  different  effect  on  each  of  the  rest;  this  different 
effect  is  from  each  as  a  centre  partially  broken  up  into 
minor  different  effects  on  the  rest;  and  so  on  in  ever  multi- 
plying and  diminishing  waves  throughout  the  entire  system. 

§  158.  If  the  Earth  was  formed  by  the  concentration  of 
diffused  matter,  it  must  at  first  have  been  incandescent ;  and 
whether  the  nebular  hypothesis  be  accepted  or  not,  this  orig- 
inal incandescence  of  the  Earth  must  now  be  regarded  as  in- 
ductively established — or,  if  not  established,  at  least  ren- 
dered so  probable  that  it  is  a  generally  admitted  geological 
doctrine.  Several  results  of  the  gradual  cooling  of  the 
Earth — as  the  formation  of  a  crust,  the  solidification  of  sub- 
limed elements,  the  precipitation  of  water,  &c,  have  been 
already  noticed — and  I  here  again  refer  to  them  merely  to 
point  out  that  they  are  simultaneous  effects  of  the  one  cause, 
diminishing  heat.  Let  us  now,  however,  observe  the  multi- 
plied changes  afterwards  arising  from  the  continuance  of 
this  one  cause.  The  Earth,  falling  in  temperature, 

must  contract.  Hence  the  solid  crust  at  any  time  existing, 
is  presently  too  large  for  the  shrinking  nucleus;  and  being 
unable  to  support  itself,  inevitably  follows  the  nucleus.  But 
a  spheroid  envelope  cannot  sink  down  into  contact  with  a 
smaller  internal  spheroid,  without  disruption:  it  will  run 
into  wrinkles,  as  the  rind  of  an  apple  does  when  the  bulk 
of  its  interior  decreases  from  evaporation.  As  the  cooling 
progresses  and.  the  envelope  thickens,  the  ridges  conse- 
quent on  these  contractions  must  become  greater;  rising 
ultimately  into  hills  and  mountains;  and  the  later  systems 
of  mountains  thus  produced  must  not  only  be  higher,  as  we 
find  them  to  be,  but  they  must  be  longer,  as  we  also  find 


THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS.  449 

tlicm  to  be.  Thus,  leaving  out  of  view  other  modifying 
forces,  we  see  what  immense  heterogeneity  of  surface  arises 
from  the  one  cause,  loss  of  heat — a  heterogeneity  which  the 
telescope  shows  us  to  be  paralleled  on  the  Moon,  where  aque- 
ous and  atmospheric  agencies  have  been  absent.  But 
we  have  yet  to  notice  another  kind  of  heterogeneity  of 
surface,  similarly  and  simultaneously  caused.  While  the 
Earth's  crust  was  still  thin,  the  ridges  produced  by  its  con- 
traction must  not  only  have  been  small,  but  the  tracts  be- 
tween them  must  have  rested  with  comparative  smoothness 
on  the  subjacent  liquid  spheroid;  and  the  water  in  those  arc- 
tic and  antarctic  regions  where  it  first  condensed,  must  have 
been  evenly  distributed.  But  as  fast  as  the  crust  grew 
thicker  and  gained  corresponding  strength,  the  lines  of  frac- 
ture from  time  to  time  caused  in  it,  necessarily  occurred  at 
greater  distances  apart;  the  intermediate  surfaces  followed 
the  contracting  nucleus  with  less  uniformity ;  and  there  con- 
sequently resulted  larger  areas  of  land  and  water.  If  any 
one,  after  wrapping  an  orange  in  wet  tissue  paper,  and  ob- 
serving both  how  small  are  the  wrinkles  and  how  evenly 
the  intervening  spaces  lie  on  the  surface  of  the  orange,  will 
then  wrap  it  in  thick  cartridge-paper,  and  note  both  the 
greater  height  of  the  ridges  and  the  larger  spaces  through- 
out which  the  paper  does  not  touch  the  orange,  he  will  real- 
ize the  fact,  that  as  the  Earth's  solid  envelope  thickened,  the 
areas  of  elevation  and  depression  became  greater.  In  place 
of  islands  more  or  less  homogeneously  scattered  over  an 
all-embracing  sea,  there  must  have  gradually  arisen  hetero- 
geneous arrangements  of  continent  and  ocean,  such  as  we 
now  know.  This  double  change  in  the  extent  and 
in  the  elevation  of  the  lands,  involved  yet  another  species  of 
heterogeneity — that  of  coast-line.  A  tolerably  even  sur- 
face raised  out  of  the  ocean  will  have  a  simple,  regular  sea- 
margin;  but  a  surface  varied  by  table-lands  and  intersected 
by  mountain-chains,  will,  when  raised  out  of  the  ocean,  have 
an  outline  extremely  irregular,  alike  in  its  leading  features 


450  THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS. 

and  in  its  details.  Thus  endless  is  the  accumulation  of 
geological  and4  geographical  results  slowly  brought  about 
by  this  one  cause — the  escape  of  the  Earth's  primitive  heat. 
When  we  pass  from  the  agency  which  geologists  term 
igneous,  to  aqueous  and  atmospheric  agencies,  we  see  a  like 
ever-growing  complication  of  effects.  The  denuding  actions 
of  air  and  water  have,  from  the  beginning,  been  modifying 
every  exposed  surface :  everywhere  working  many  different 
changes.  As  already  shown  (§69)  the  original  source  of 
those  gaseous  and  fluid  motions  which  effect  denudation,  is 
the  solar  heat.  The  transformation  of  this  into  various 
modes  of  force,  according  to  the  nature  and  condition  of  the 
matter  on  which  it  falls,  is  the  first  stage  of  complication. 
The  sun's  rays,  striking  at  all  angles  a  sphere,  that  from  mo- 
ment to  moment  presents  and  withdraws  different  parts  of 
its  surface,  and  each  of  them  for  a  different  time  daily 
throughout  the  year,  would  produce  a  considerable  variety 
of  changes  even  were  the  sphere  uniform.  But  falling  as 
they  do  on  a  sphere  surrounded  by  an  atmosphere  in  some 
parts  of  which  wide  areas  of  cloud  are  suspended,  and  which 
here  unveils  vast  tracts  of  sea,  there  of  level  land,  there  of 
mountains,  there  of  snow  and  ice,  they  initiate  in  its  several 
parts  countless  different  movements.  Currents  of  air  of  all 
sizes,  directions,  velocities,  and  temperatures,  are  set  up;  as 
are  also  marine  currents  similarly  contrasted  in  their  charac- 
ters. In  this  region  the  surface  is  giving  off  water  in  the 
state  of  vapour;  in  that,  dew  is  being  precipitated;  and  in 
the  other  rain  is  descending — differences  that  arise  from  the 
ever-changing  ratio  between  the  absorption  and  radiation  of 
heat  in  each  place.  At  one  hour,  a  rapid  fall  in  temperature 
leads  to  the  formation  of  ice,  with  an  accompanying  ex- 
pansion throughout  the  moist  bodies  frozen;  while  at  an- 
other, a  thaw  unlocks  the  dislocated  fragments  of  these  bod- 
ies. And  then,  passing  to  a  second  stage  of  complication, 
we  see  that  the  many  kinds  of  motion  directly  or  indirectly 
caused  by  the  sun's  rays,  severally  produce  results  that  vary 


THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS.  451 

with  the  conditions.  Oxidation,  drought,  wind,  frost,  rain, 
glaciers,  rivers,  waves,  and  other  denuding  agents  effect  dis- 
integrations that  are  determined  in  their  amounts  and  quali- 
ties by  local  circumstances.  Acting  upon  a  tract  of  granite, 
such  agents  here  work  scarcely  an  appreciable  effect;  there 
cause  exfoliations  of  the  surface,  and  a  resulting  heap  of 
debris  and  boulders;  and  elsewhere,  after  decomposing  the 
feldspar  into  a  white  clay,  carry  away  this  with  the  accom- 
panying quartz  and  mica,  and  deposit  them  in  separate  beds, 
fluviatile  and  marine.  When  the  exposed  land  consists  of 
several  unlike  formations,  sedimentary  and  igneous,  changes 
proportionately  more  heterogeneous  are  wrought.  The  for- 
mations being  disintegrable  in  different  degrees,  there  fol- 
lows an  increased  irregularity  of  surface.  The  areas 
drained  by  different  rivers  being  differently  constituted, 
these  rivers  carry  down  to  the  sea  unlike  combinations  of 
ingredients;  and  so  sundry  new  strata  of  distinct  composi- 
tion arise.  And  here  indeed  we  may  see  very  simply  illus- 
trated, the  truth,  that  the  heterogeneity  of  the  effects  in- 
creases in  a  geometrical  progression,  with  the  heterogeneity 
of  the  object  acted  upon.  A  continent  of  complex  struc- 
ture, presenting  many  strata  irregularly  distributed,  raised 
to  various  levels,  tilted  up  at  all  angles,  must,  under  the 
same  denuding  agencies,  give  origin  to  immensely  multi- 
plied results :  each  district  must  be  peculiarly  modified ;  each 
river  must  carry  down  a  distinct  kind  of  detritus;  each  de- 
posit must  be  differently  distributed  by  the  entangled  cur- 
rents, tidal  and  other,  which  wash  the  contorted  shores;  and 
every  additional  complication  of  surface  must  be  the  cause 
of  more  than  one  additional  consequence.  But  not  to  dwell 
on  these,  let  us  for  the  fuller  elucidation  of  this  truth  in 
relation  to  the  inorganic  world,  consider  what  would  present- 
ly f oIIoav  from  some  extensive  cosmical  revolution — say  the 
subsidence  of  Central  America.  The  immediate  results  of 
the  disturbance  would  themselves  be  sufficiently  complex. 
Besides  the  numberless  dislocations  of  strata,  the  ejections 


452  THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS. 

of  igneous  matter,  the  propagation  of  earthquake  vibrations 
thousands  of  miles  around,  the  loud  explosions,  and  the  es- 
cape of  gases,  there  would  be  the  rush  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans  to  supply  the  vacant  space,  the  subsequent 
recoil  of  enormous  waves,  which  would  traverse  both  these 
oceans  and  produce  myriads  of  changes  along  their  shores, 
the  corresponding  atmospheric  waves  complicated  by  the 
currents  surrounding  each  volcanic  vent,  and  the  electrical 
discharges  with  which  such  disturbances  are  accompanied. 
But  these  temporary  effects  would  be  insignificant  com- 
pared with  the  permanent  ones.  The  complex  currents  of 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  would  be  altered  in  directions  and 
amounts.  The  distribution  of  heat  achieved  by  these  cur- 
rents would  be  different  from  what  it  is.  The  arrangement 
of  the  isothermal  lines,  not  only  on  the  neighbouring  con- 
tinents, but  even  throughout  Europe,  would  be  changed. 
The  tides  would  flow  differently  from  what  they  do  now. 
There  would  be  more  or  less  modification  of  the  winds  in 
their  periods,  strengths,  directions,  qualities.  Rain  would 
fall  scarcely  anywhere  at  the  same  times  and  in  the  same 
quantities  as  at  present.  In  short,  the  meteorological  condi- 
tions thousands  of  miles  off,  on  all  sides,  would  be  more  or 
less  revolutionized.  In  these  many  changes,  each  of  which 
comprehends  countless  minor  ones,  the  reader  will  see  the 
immense  heterogeneity  of  the  results  wrought  out  by  one 
force,  when  that  force  expends  itself  on  a  previously  compli- 
cated area ;  and  he  will  readily  draw  the  corollary  that  from 
the  beginning  the  complication  has  advanced  at  an  increas- 
ing rate. 

§  159.  AVe  have  next  to  trace  throughout  organic  evolu- 
tion, this  same  all-pervading  principle.  And  here,  where 
the  transformation  of  the  homogeneous  into  the  heterogene- 
ous was  first  observed,  the  production  of  many  changes  by 
one  cause  is  least  easy  to  demonstrate.  The  development  of 
a  seed  into  a  plant,  or  an  ovum  into  an  animal,  is  so  gradual; 


THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS.  453 

while  the  forces  which  determine  it  are  so  involved,  and  at 
the  same  time  so  unobtrusive ;  that  it  is  difficult  to  detect  the 
multiplication  of  effects  which  is  elsewhere  so  obvious. 
Nevertheless,  by  indirect  evidence  we  may  establish  our 
proposition ;  spite  of  the  lack  of  direct  evidence. 

Observe,  first,  how  numerous  are  the  changes  which  any 
marked  stimulus  works  on  an  adult  organism — a  human  be- 
ing, for  instance.  An  alarming  sound  or  sight,  besides 
impressions  on  the  organs  of  sense  and  the  nerves,  may  pro- 
duce a  start,  a  scream,  a  distortion  of  the  face,  a  trembling 
consequent  on  general  muscular  relaxation,  a  burst  of  per- 
spiration, an  excited  action  of  the  heart,  a  rush  of  blood  to 
the  brain,  followed  possibly  by  arrest  of  the  heart's  action 
and  by  syncope;  and  if  the  system  be  feeble,  an  illness  with 
its  long  train  of  complicated  symptoms  may  set  in.  Simi- 
larly in  cases  of  disease.  A  minute  portion  of  the  small-pox 
virus  introduced  into  the  system,  will,  in  a  severe  case,  cause, 
during  the  first  stage,  rigors,  heat  of  skin,  accelerated  pulse, 
furred  tongue,  loss  of  appetite,  thirst,  epigastric  uneasiness, 
vomiting,  headache,  pains  in  the  back  and  limbs,  muscular 
weakness,  convulsions,  delirium,  &c;  in  the  second  stage, 
cutaneous  eruption,  itching,  tingling,  sore  throat,  swelled 
fauces,  salivation,  cough,  hoarseness,  dyspnoea,  &c. ;  and  in 
the  third  stage,  oedematous  inflammations,  pneumonia, 
pleurisy,  diarrhoea,  inflammation  of  the  brain,  ophthalmia, 
erysipelas,  &c. :  each  of  which  enumerated  symptoms  is 
itself  more  or  less  complex.  Medicines,  special  f  oods,  better 
air,  might  in  like  manner  be  instanced  as  producing  multi- 
plied results.  Now  it  needs  only  to  consider  that 
the  many  changes  thus  wrought  by  one  force  on  an  adult 
organism,  must  be  partially  paralleled  in  an  embryo-organ- 
ism, to  understand  how  here  also  the  production  of  many 
effects  by  one  cause  is  a  source  of  increasing  heterogeneity. 
The  external  heat  and  other  agencies  which  determine  the 
first  complications  of  the  germ,  will,  by  acting  on  these,  super- 
induce further  complications;  on  these  still  higher  and  more 


454  THE   MULTIPLICATION   OF  EFFECTS. 

numerous  ones:  an  J  so  on  continually:  eaeh  organ  as  it  is  de- 
veloped, serving,  by  its  actions  and  reactions  on  the  rest,  to 
initiate  new  complexities.  The  first  pulsations  of  the  foetal 
heart  must  simultaneously  aid  the  unfolding  of  every  part. 
The  growth  of  eaeh  tissue,  by  taking  from  the  blood  special 
proportions  of  elements,  must  modify  the  constitution  of  the 
blood:  and  so  must  modify  the  nutrition  of  all  the  other 
tissues.  The  distributive  actions,  implying  as  they  do  a  cer- 
tain waste,  necessitate  an  addition  to  the  blood  of  effete 
matters,  which  must  influence  the  rest  of  the  system,  and 
perhaps,  as  some  think,  initiate  the  formation  of  excretory, 
organs.  The  nervous  connections  established  among  the 
viscera  must  further  multiply  their  mutual  influences.  And 
so  with  every  modification  of  structure — every  additional 
part  and  every  alteration  in  the  ratios  of  parts.  Still 

stronger  becomes  the  proof  when  we  call  to  mind  the  fact, 
that  the  same  germ  may  be  evolved  into  different  form-  ac^ 
cording  to  circumstances.  Thus,  during  its  earlier  stages, 
every  embryo  is  sexless — becomes  either  male  or  female  as 
the  balance  of  forces  acting  on  it  determines.  Again,  it  is 
well-known  that  the  larva  of  a  working-bee  will  develop 
into  a  queen-bee,  if,  before  a  certain  period,  its  food  be 
changed  to  that  en  which  the  larvae  of  queen-bees  are  fed. 
Even  more  remarkable  is  the  case  of  certain  entozoa.  The 
ovum  of  a  tape-worm,  getting  into  the  intestine  of  one  ani- 
mal, unfolds  into  the  form  of  its  parent :  but  if  carried  into 
other  parts  of  the  system,  or  into  the  intestine  of  some 
unlike  animal,  it  becomes  one  of  the  saedike  creatures, 
called  by  naturalists  Ch/sticerei,  or  Ccenuri,  or  Echinoc 
— creatures  so  extremely  different  from  the  tape-worm 
in  aspect  and  structure,  that  only  after  careful  investiga- 
tions have  they  been  proved  to  have  the  same  origin. 
All  which  instances  imply  that  each  advance  in  embryonic 
complication  results  from  the  action  of  incident  f<  >rces  on  the 
complication  previously  existing.  Indeed,  the  now 

accepted  doctrine  of  epigenesis  necessitates  the  conclusion 


THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS.  455 

that  organic  evolution  proceeds  after  this  manner.  For 
since  it  is  proved  that  no  germ,  animal  or  vegetal,  contains 
the  slightest  rudiment,  trace,  or  indication  of  the  future  or- 
ganism— since  the  microscope  has  shown  us  that  the  first 
process  set  up  in  every  fertilized  germ  is  a  process  of  repeat- 
ed spontaneous  fissions,  ending  in  the  production  of  a  mass 
of  cells,  not  one  of  which  exhibits  any  special  character; 
there  seems  no  alternative  but  to  conclude  that  the  partial 
organization  at  any  moment  subsisting  in  a  growing  embryo, 
is  transformed  by  the  agencies  acting  on  it  into  the  succeed- 
ing phase  of  organization,  and  this  into  the  next,  until, 
through  ever-increasing  complexities,  the  ultimate  form  is 
reached.  Thus,  though  the  subtlety  of  the  forces  and 

the  slowness  of  the  metamorphosis,  prevent  us  from  directly 
tracing  the  genesis  of  many  changes  by  one  cause,  through- 
out the  successive  stages  which  every  embryo  passes 
through;  yet,  indirectly,  we  have  strong  evidence  that  this 
is  a  source  of  increasing  heterogeneity.  We  have  marked 
how  multitudinous  are  the  effects  which  a  single  agency 
may  generate  in  an  adult  organism;  that  a  like  multiplica- 
tion of  effects  must  happen  in  the  unfolding  organism,  we 
have  inferred  from  sundry  illustrative  cases;  further,  it  has 
been  pointed  out  that  the  ability  which  like  germs  have  to 
originate  unlike  forms,  implies  that  the  successive  transfor- 
mations result  from  the  new  changes  superinduced  on  pre- 
vious changes;  and  we  have  seen  that  structureless  as  every 
germ  originally  is,  the  development  of  an  organism  out  of  it 
is  otherwise  incomprehensible.  Doubtless  we  are  still  in 
the  dark  respecting  those  mysterious  properties  which  make 
the  germ,  when  subject  to  fit  influences,  undergo  the  special 
changes  beginning  this  series  of  transformations.  All  here 
contended  is,  that  given  a  germ  possessing  these  mysterious 
properties,  the  evolution  of  an  organism  from  it  depends, 
in  part,  on  that  multiplication  of  effects  which  we  have  seen 
to  be  a  cause  of  evolution  in  general,  so  far  as  we  have  yet 
traced  it. 


45G  THE  MULTIPLICATION  OP  EFFECTS. 

"When,  leaving  the  development  of  single  plants  and  ani- 
mals, we  pass  to  that  of  the  Earth's  flora  and  fauna,  the 
course  of  the  argument  again  becomes  clear  and  simple. 
Though,  as  before  admitted,  the  fragmentary  facts  Palaeon- 
tology has  accumulated,  do  not  clearly  warrant  us  in  saying 
that,  in  the  lapse  of  geologic  time,  there  have  been  evolved 
more  heterogeneous  organisms,  and  more  heterogeneous 
assemblages  of  organisms;  yet  we  shall  now  see  that  there 
must  ever  have  been  a  tendency  towards  these  results.  We 
shall  find  that  the  production  of  many  effects  by  one  cause, 
which,  as  already  shown,  has  been  all  along  increasing 
the  physical  heterogeneity  of  the  Earth,  has  further  neces- 
sitated an  increasing  heterogeneity  in  its  flora  and  fauna, 
individually  and  collectively.  An  illustration  will  make  this 
clear.  Suppose  that  by  a  series  of  upheavals,  occur- 

ring, as  they  are  now  known  to  do,  at  long  intervals,  the  East 
Indian  Archipelago  were  to  be  raised  into  a  continent,  and  a 
chain  of  mountains  formed  along  the  axis  of  elevation.  By 
the  first  of  these  upheavals,  the  plants  and  animals  inhabit- 
ing Borneo,  Sumatra,  Xew  Guinea,  and  the  rest,  would  be 
subjected  to  slightly-modified  sets  of  conditions.  The  cli- 
mate in  general  would  be  altered  in  temperature,  in  humid- 
ity, and  in  its  periodical  variations;  while  the  local  differ- 
ences would  be  multiplied.  These  modifications  would  af- 
fect, perhaps  inappreciably,  the  entire  flora  and  fauna  of  the 
region.  The  change  of  level  would  produce  additional  modi- 
fications; varying  in  different  species,  and  also  in  different 
members  of  the  same  species,  according  to  their  distance 
from  the  axis  of  elevation.  Plants,  growing  only  on  the  sea- 
shore in  special  localities,  might  become  extinct.  Others, 
living  only  in  swamps  of  a  certain  humidity,  would,  if  they 
survived  at  all,  probably  undergo  visible  changes  of  appear- 
ance. While  more  marked  alterations  would  occur  in  some 
of  the  plants  that  spread  over  the  lands  newly  raised  above 
the  sea.  The  animals  and  insects  living  on  these  modified 
plants,  would  themselves  be  in  some  degree  modified  by 


THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS.  457 

change  of  food,  as  well  as  by  change  of  climate;  and  the 
modification  would  be  more  marked  where,  from  the  dwin- 
dling or  disappearance  of  one  kind  of  plant,  an  allied  kind 
was  eaten.  In  the  lapse  of  the  many  generations  arising  be- 
fore the  next  upheaval,  the  sensible  or  insensible  alterations 
thus  produced  in  each  species,  would  become  organized — 
in  all  the  races  that  survived  there  would  be  a  more  or  less 
complete  adaptation  to  the  new  conditions.  The  next  up- 
heaval would  superinduce  further  organic  changes,  imply- 
ing wider  divergences  from  the  primary  forms;  and  so 
repeatedly.  Now  however  let  it  be  observed  that  this  revo- 
lution would  not  be  a  substitution  of  a  thousand  modified 
species  for  the  thousand  original  species;  but  in  place  of  the 
thousand  original  species  there  would  arise  several  thousand 
species,  or  varieties,  or  changed  forms.  Each  species  being 
distributed  over  an  area  of  some  extent,  and  tending  con- 
tinually to  colonize  the  new  area  exposed,  its  different  mem- 
bers would  be  subject  to  different  sets  of  changes.  Plants 
and  animals  migrating  towards  the  equator  would  not  be 
affected  in  the  same  way  with  others  migrating  from  it. 
Those  which  spread  towards  the  new  shores,  would  undergo 
changes  unlike  the  changes  undergone  by  those  which 
spread  into  the  mountains.  Thus,  each  original  race  of  or- 
ganisms would  become  the  root  from  which  diverged  sev- 
eral races,  differing  more  or  less  from  it  and  from  each 
other;  and  while  some  of  these  might  subsequently  disap- 
pear, probably  more  than  one  would  survive  in  the  next 
geologic  period:  the  very  dispersion  itself  increasing  the 
chances  of  survival.  Not  only  would  there  be  certain  modi- 
fications thus  caused  by  changes  of  physical  conditions  and 
food;  but  also  in  some  cases  other  modifications  caused  by 
changes  of  habit  do  take  place  in  animals;  and  we  know 
by  step,  the  newly-raised  tracts,  would  eventually  come  in 
contact  with  the  faunas  of  other  islands ;  and  some  members 
of  these  other  faunas  would  be  unlike  any  creatures  before 
seen.  Herbivores  meeting  with  new  beasts  of  prey,  would, 
31 


458  THE   MULTIPLICATION   OF  EFFECTS. 

in  some  cases,  be  led  into  modes  of  defence  or  escape  differ- 
ing from  those  previously  used;  and  simultaneously  the 
beasts  of  prey  would  modify  their  modes  of  pursuit  and 
attack.  We  know  that  when  circumstances  demand  it,  such 
changes  of  habit  do  take  place  in  animals;  and  we  know 
that  if  the  new  habits  become  the  dominant  ones,  they 
must  eventually  in  some  degree  alter  the  organiza- 
tion. Observe  now,  however,  a  further  consequence. 
There  must  arise  not  simply  a  tendency  towards  the  differ- 
entiation of  each  race  of  organisms  into  several  races;  but 
also  a  tendency  to  the  occasional  production  of  a  somewhat 
higher  organism.  Taken  in  the  mass,  these  divergent  varie- 
ties, which  have  been  caused  by  fresh  physical  conditions 
and  habits  of  life,  will  exhibit  alterations  quite  indefinite  in 
kind  and  degree;  and  alterations  that  do  not  necessarily  con- 
stitute an  advance.  Probably  in  most  cases  the  modified 
type  will  be  not  appreciably  more  heterogeneous  than  the 
original  one.  But  it  must  now  and  then  occur,  that  some 
division  of  a  species,  falling  into  circumstances  which  give 
it  rather  more  complex  experiences,  and  demand  actions 
somewhat  more  involved,  will  have  certain  of  its  organs 
further  differentiated  in  proportionately  small  degrees — 
will  become  slightly  more  heterogeneous.  Hence,  there  will 
from  time  to  time  arise  an  increased  heterogeneity  both  of 
the  Earth's  flora  and  fauna,  and  of  individual  races  included 
in  them.  Omitting  detailed  explanations,  and  allowing  for 
the  qualifications  which  cannot  here  be  specified,  it  is  suffi- 
ciently clear  that  geological  mutations  have  all  along  tended 
to  complicate  the  forms  of  life,  whether  regarded  separately 
or  collectively.  That  multiplication  of  effects  which  has 
been  a  part-cause  of  the  transformation  of  the  Earth's 
crust  from  the  simple  into  the  complex,  has  simultane- 
ously led  to  a  parallel  transformation  of  the  Life  upon  its 
surface.* 

*  Had  this  paragraph,  first  published  in  the  Westminster  Review  in  1857, 
been  written  after  the  appearance  of  Mr.  Darwin's  work  on  The  Origin  of 


THE   MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS.  459 

The  deduction  here  drawn  from  the  established  truths  of 
geology  and  the  general  laws  of  life,  gains  immensely  in 
weight  on  finding  it  to  be  in  harmony  with  an  induction 
drawn  from  direct  experience.  Just  that  divergence  of 
many  races  from  one  race,  which  we  inferred  must  have 
been  continually  occurring  during  geologic  time,  we  know 
to  have  occurred  during  the  pre-historic  and  historic  periods, 
in  man  and  domestic  animals.  And  just  that  niultiplication 
of  effects  which  we  concluded  must  have  been  instrumental 
to  the  first,  we  see  has  in  a  great  measure  wrought  the  last. 
Single  causes,  as  famine,  pressure  of  population,  war,  have 
periodically  led  to  further  dispersions  of  mankind  and  of 
dependent  creatures:  each  such  dispersion  initiating  neAv 
modifications,  new  varieties  of  type.  Whether  all  the 
human  races  be  or  be  not  derived  from  one  stock,  philology 
makes  it  clear  that  whole  groups  of  races,  now  easily  dis- 
tinguishable from  each  other,  were  originally  one  race — 
that  the  diffusion  of  one  race  into  different  climates  and 
conditions  of  existence  has  produced  many  altered  forms 
of  it.  Similarly  with  domestic  animals.  Though  in  some 
cases  (as  that  of  dogs)  community  of  origin  will  perhaps 
be  disputed,  yet  in  other  cases  (as  that  of  the  sheep  or  the 
cattle  of  our  own  country)  it  will  not  be  questioned  that 
local  differences  of  climate,  food,  and  treatment,  have  trans- 
formed one  original  breed  into  numerous  breeds,  now  be- 


?,  it  would  doubtless  have  been  otherwise  expressed.  Reference  would 
have  been  made  to  the  process  of  "  natural  selection,"  as  greatly  facilitating 
the  differentiations  described.  As  it  is,  however,  I  prefer  to  let  the  passage 
stand  in  its  original  shape  :  partly  because  it  seems  to  me  that  these  succes- 
sive changes  of  conditions  would  produce  divergent  varieties  or  species,  apart 
from  the  influence  of  "  natural  selection  "  (though  in  less  numerous  ways  as 
well  as  less  rapidly) ;  and  partly  because  I  conceive  that  in  the  absence  of 
these  successive  changes  of  conditions,  "  natural  selection  "  would  effect  com- 
paratively little.  Let  me  add  that  though  these  positions  are  not  enunciated 
in  The  Origin  of  Species,  yet  a  common  friend  gives  me  reason  to  think  that 
Mr.  Darwin  would  coincide  in  them ;  if  he  did  not  indeed  consider  them  as 
tacitly  implied  in  his  work. 


460  THE   MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS. 

come  so  far  distinct  as  to  produce  unstable  hybrids.  More- 
over through  the  complication  of  effects  flowing  from  single 
causes,  we  here  find,  what  we  before  inferred,  not  only  an 
increase  of  general  heterogeneity,  but  also  of  special  het- 
erogeneity. While  of  the  divergent  divisions  and  subdi- 
visions of  the  human  race,  many  have  undergone  changes 
not  constituting  an  advance;  others  have  become  decid- 
edly more  heterogeneous.  The  civilized  European  departs 
more  widely  from  the  vertebrate  archetype  than  does  the 
savage. 

§  160.  A  sensation  does  not  expend  itself  in  arousing 
some  single  state  of  consciousness;  but  the  state  of  con- 
sciousness aroused  is  made  up  of  various  represented  sensa- 
tions connected  by  co-existence,  or  sequence  with  the  pre- 
sented sensation.  And  that,  in  proportion  as  the  grade  of 
intelligence  is  high,  the  number  of  ideas  suggested  is  great, 
may  be  readily  inferred.  Let  us,  however,  look  at  the  proof 
that  here  too,  each  change  is  the  parent  of  many  changes; 
and  that  the  multiplication  increases  in  proportion  as  the 
area  affected  is  complex. 

Were  some  hitherto  unknown  bird,  driven  say  by  stress 
of  weather  from  the  remote  north,  to  make  its  appearance  on 
our  shores,  it  would  excite  no  speculation  in  the  sheep  or  cat- 
tle amid  which  it  alighted:  a  perception  of  it  as  a  creature 
like  those  constantly  flying  about,  would  be  the  sole  inter- 
ruption of  that  dull  current  of  consciousness  which  accom- 
panies grazing  and  rumination.  The  cow-herd,  by  whom  we 
may  suppose  the  exhausted  bird  to  be  presently  caught, 
would  probably  gaze  at  it  with  some  slight  curiosity,  as  being 
unlike  any  he  had  before  seen — would  note  its  most  con- 
spicuous markings,  and  vaguely  ponder  on  the  questions, 
where  it  came  from,  and  how  it  came.  The  village  bird- 
stuffer  would  have  suggested  to  him  by  the  sight  of  it,  sun- 
dry forms  to  which  it  bore  a  little  resemblance;  would  re- 
ceive from  it  more  numerous  and  more  specific  impressions 


THE  MULTIPLICATION   OF  EFFECTS.  461 

respecting  structure  and  plumage;  would  be  reminded  of 
various  instances  of  birds  brought  by  storms  from  foreign 
parts — would  tell  who  found  them,  who  stuffed  them,  who 
bought  them.  Supposing  the  unknown  bird  taken  to  a  natu- 
ralist of  the  old  school,  interested  only  in  externals,  (one  of 
those  described  by  the  late  Edward  Forbes,  as  examining 
animals  as  though  they  were  merely  skins  filled  with  straw,) 
it  would  excite  in  him  a  more  involved  series  of  mental 
changes:  there  would  be  an  elaborate  examination  of  the 
feathers,  a  noting  of  all  their  technical  distinctions,  with  a 
reduction  of  these  perceptions  to  certain  equivalent  written 
symbols;  reasons  for  referring  the  enw  form  to  a  particular 
family,  order,  and  genus  would  be  sought  out  and  written 
clown;  communications  with  the  secretary  of  some  society, 
or  editor  of  some  journal,  would  follow;  and  probably 
there  would  be  not  a  few  thoughts  about  the  addition  of 
the  ii  to  the  describer's  name,  to  form  the  name  of  the 
species.  Lastly,  in  the  mind  of  a  comparative  anatomist, 
such  a  new  species,  should  it  happen  to  have  any  marked  in- 
ternal peculiarity,  might  produce  additional  sets  of  changes 
— might  very  possibly  suggest  modified  views  respecting 
the  relationships  of  the  division  to  which  it  belonged;  or, 
perhaps,  alter  his  conceptions  of  the  homologies  and  devel- 
opments of  certain  organs;  and  the  conclusions  drawn  might 
not  improbably  enter  as  elements  into  still  wider  inquiries 
concerning  the  origin  of  organic  forms. 

From  ideas  let  us  turn  to  emotions.  In  a  young  child,  a 
father's  anger  produces  little  else  than  vague  fear — a  .dis- 
agreeable sense  of  impending  evil,  taking  various  shapes  of 
physical  suffering  or  deprivation  of  pleasures.  In  elder  chil- 
dren, the  same  harsh  words  will  arouse  additional  feelings: 
sometimes  a  sense  of  shame,  of  penitence,  or  of  sorrow  for 
having  offended;  at  other  times,  a  sense  of  injustice,  and  a 
consequent  anger.  In  the  wife,  yet  a  further  range  of  feel- 
ings may  come  into  existence — perhaps  wounded  affection, 
perhaps  self-pity  for  ill-usage,  perhaps  contempt  for  ground- 


402  THE   MULTIPLICATION"  OF  EFFECTS. 

less  irritability,  perhaps  sympathy  for  some  suffering  which 
the  irritability  indicates,  perhaps  anxiety  about  an  unknown 
misfortune  which  she  thinks  has  produced  it.  Xor  are  we 
without  evidence  that  among  adults,  the  like  differences  of 
development  are  accompanied  by  like  differences  in  the 
number  of  emotions  that  are  aroused,  in  combination  or 
rapid  succession — the  lower  natures  being  characterized 
by  that  impulsiveness  which  results  from  the  uncontrolled 
action  of  a  few  feelings;  and  the  higher  natures  being  char- 
acterized by  the  simultaneous  action  of  many  secondary  feel- 
ings, modifying  those  first  awakened. 

Possibly  it  will  be  objected  that  the  illustrations  here 
given,  are  drawn  from  the  functional  changes  of  the  nerv- 
ous system,  not  from  its  structural  changes;  and  that  what 
is  proved  among  the  first,  does  not  necessarily  hold  among 
the  last.  This  must  be  admitted.  Those,  however,  who  rec- 
ognize the  truth  that  the  structural  changes  are  the  slowly 
accumulated  results  of  the  functional  changes,  will  readily 
draw  the  corollary,  that  a  part-cause  of  the  evolution  of  the 
nervous  system,  as  of  other  evolution,  is  this  multiplication 
of  effects  which  becomes  ever  greater  as  the  development 
becomes  higher. 

§  161.  If  the  advance  of  Man  towards  greater  hetero- 
geneity in  both  body  and  mind,  is  in  part  traceable  to  the 
production  of  many  effects  by  one  cause,  still  more  clearly 
may  the  advance  of  Society  towards  greater  heterogeneity 
be  so  explained.  Consider  the  growth  of  an  industrial  or- 
ganization. When,  as  must  occasionally  happen,  some  in- 
dividual of  a  tribe  displays  unusual  aptitude  for  making  an 
article  of  general  use  (a  weapon,  for  instance)  which  was 
before  made  by  each  man  for  himself,  there  arises  a  tend- 
ency towards  the  differentiation  of  that  individual  into  a 
maker  of  weapons.  His  companions  (warriors  and  hunters 
all  of  them)  severally  wish  to  have  the  best  weapons  that 
can  be  made;  and  are  therefore  certain  to  offer  strong  in- 


THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS.  463 

clucements  to  this  skilled  individual  to  make  weapons  for 
them.  He,  on  the  other  hand,  having  both  an  unusual 
faculty,  and  an  unusual  liking,  for  making  weapons  (the 
capacity  and  the  desire  for  any  occupation  being  commonly 
associated),  is  predisposed  to  fulfil  these  commissions  on  the 
offer  of  adequate  rewards:  especially  as  his  love  of  distinc- 
tion is  also  gratified.  This  first  specialization  of  function, 
once  commenced,  tends  ever  to  become  more  decided.  On 
the  side  of  the  weapon-maker,  continued  practice  gives 
increased  skill — increased  superiority  to  his  products. 
On  the  side  of  his  clients,  cessation  of  practice  en- 
tails decreased  skill.  Thus  the  influences  that  deter- 
mine this  division  of  labour  grow  stronger  in  both  ways: 
this  social  movement  tends  ever  to  become  more  decided  in 
the  direction  in  which  it  was  first  set  up;  and  the  incipient 
heterogeneity  is,  on  the  average  of  cases,  likely  to  become 
permanent  for  that  generation,  if  no  longer.  Such  a 

process,  besides  differentiating  the  social  mass  into  two  parts, 
the  one  monopolizing,  or  almost  monopolizing,  the  perform- 
ance of  a  certain  function,  and  the  other  having  lost  the 
habit,  and  in  some  measure  the  power,  of  performing  that 
function,  has  a  tendency  to  initiate  other  differentiations. 
The  advance  described  implies  the  introduction  of  barter: 
the  maker  of  weapons  has,  on  each  occasion,  to  be  paid  in 
such  other  articles  as  he  agrees  to  take  in  exchange.  Now 
he  will  not  habitually  take  in  exchange  one  kind  of  article, 
but  many  kinds.  He  does  not  want  mats  only,  or  skins, 
or  fishing-gear;  but  he  wants  all  these;  and  on  each  occa- 
sion will  bargain  for  the  particular  things  he  most  needs. 
What  follows?  If  among  the  members  of  the  tribe  there 
exist  any  slight  differences  of  skill  in  the  manufacture  of 
these  various  things,  as  there  are  almost  sure  to  do,  the 
weapon-maker  will  take  from  each  one  the  thing  which  that 
one  excels  in  making:  he  will  exchange  for  mats  with  him 
whose  mats  are  superior,  and  will  bargain  for  the  fishing- 
gear  of  whoever  has  the  best.  But  he  who  has  bartered  away 


464  THE  MULTIPLICATION  OP   EFFECTS. 

his  mats  or  his  fishing-gear,  must  make  other  mats  or  fish- 
ing-gear for  himself;  and  in  so  doing  must,  in  some  degree, 
further  develop  his  aptitude.  Thus  it  results  that  the  small 
specialities  of  faculty  possessed  by  various  members  of  the 
tribe  will  tend  to  grow  more  decided.  If  such  transactions 
are  from  time  to  time  repeated,  these  specializations  may 
become  appreciable.  And  whether  or  not  there  ensue  dis- 
tinct differentiations  of  other  individuals  into  makers  of 
particular  articles,  it  is  clear  that  incipient  differentiations 
take  place  throughout  the  tribe :  the  one  original  cause  pro- 
duces not  only  the  first  dual  effect,  but  a  number  of  second- 
ary dual  effects,  like  in  kind  but  minor  in  degree.  This 
process,  of  which  traces  may  be  seen  among  groups  of 
school-boys,  cannot  well  produce  a  lasting  distribution  of 
functions  in  an  unsettled  tribe;  but  where  there  grows  up 
a  fixed  and  multiplying  community,  such  differentiations 
become  permanent,  and  increase  with  each  generation.  An 
addition  to  the  number  of  citizens,  involving  a  greater  de- 
mand for  every  commodity,  intensifies  the  functional  activ- 
ity of  each  specialized  person  or  class;  and  this  renders  the 
specialization  more  definite  where  it  already  exists,  and 
establishes  it  where  it  is  but  nascent.  By  increasing  the 
pressure  on  the  means  of  subsistence,  a  larger  population 
again  augments  these  results;  since  every  individual  is 
forced  more  and  more  to  confine  himself  to  that  which  he 
can  do  best,  and  by  which  he  can  gain  most.  And  this 
industrial  progress,  by  aiding  future  production,  opens  the 
way  for  further  growth  of  population,  which  reacts  as  be- 
fore. Presently,  under  the  same  stimuli,  new  occu- 
pations arise.  Competing  workers,  severally  aiming  to  pro- 
duce improved  articles,  occasionally  discover  better  processes 
or  better  materials.  In  weapons  and  cutting-tools,  the  sub- 
stitution of  bronze  for  stone  entails  on  him  who  first  makes 
it,  a  great  increase  of  demand — so  great  an  increase  that  he 
presently  finds  all  his  time  occupied  in  making  the  bronze 
for  the  article  he  sells,  and  is  obliged  to  depute  the  fashion- 


THE  MULTIPLICATION   OF  EFFECTS.  465 

ing  of  these  articles  to  others;  and  eventually  the  making 
of  bronze,  thus  gradually  differentiated  from  a  pre-existing 
occupation,  becomes  an  occupation  by  itself.  But  now  mark 
the  ramified  changes  which  follow  this  change.  Bronze 
soon  replaces  stone,  not  only  in  the  articles  it  was  first  used 
for,  but  in  many  others;  and  so  affects  the  manufacture  of 
them.  Further,  it  affects  the  processes  which  such  improved 
utensils  subserve,  and  the  resulting  products — modifies 
buildings,  carvings,  dress,  personal  decorations.  Yet  again, 
it  sets  going  sundry  manufactures  which  were  before  impos- 
sible, from  lack  of  a  material  fit  for  the  requisite  tools.  And 
all  these  changes  react  on  the  people — increase  their  ma- 
nipulative skill,  their  intelligence,  their  comfort — refine 
their  habits  and  tastes. 

It  is  out  of  the  question  here  to  follow  through  its  succes- 
sive complications,  this  increasing  social  heterogeneity  that 
results  from  the  production  of  many  effects  by  one  cause. 
But  leaving  the  intermediate  phases  of  social  development, 
let  us  take  an  illustration  from  its  passing  phase.  To  trace 
the  effects  of  steam-power,  in  its  manifold  applications  to 
mining,  navigation,  and  manufactures,  would  carry  us  into 
unmanageable  detail.  Let  us  confine  ourselves  to  the  latest 
embodiment  of  steam-power — the  locomotive  engine. 
This,  as  the  proximate  cause  of  our  railway-system,  has 
changed  the  face  of  the  country,  the  course  of  trade,  and 
the  habits  of  the  people.  Consider,  first,  the  complicated 
sets  of  changes  that  precede  the  making  of  every  railway — 
the  provisional  arrangements,  the  meetings,  the  registra- 
tion, the  trial-section,  the  parliamentary  survey,  the  litho- 
graphed plans,  the  books  of  reference,  the  local  deposits  and 
notices,  the  application  to  Parliament,  the  passing  Stand- 
ing-Orders Committee,  the  first,  second,  and  third  read- 
ings: each  of  which  brief  heads  indicates  a  multiplicity  of 
transactions,  and  the  further  development  of  sundry  occu- 
pations, (as  those  of  engineers,  surveyors,  lithographers,  par- 
liamentary agents,  share-brokers,)  and  the  creation  of  sun- 


466  THE  MULTIPLICATION   OF  EFFECTS. 

dry  others  (as  those  of  traffic-takers,  reference-takers).  Con- 
sider, next,  the  yet  more  marked  changes  implied  in  railway 
construction — the  cuttings,  embankings,  tunnellings,  diver- 
sions of  roads;  the  building  of  bridges  and  stations;  the  lay- 
ing down  of  ballast,  sleepers,  and  rails;  the  making  of 
engines,  tenders,  carriages,  and  wagons:  which  processes, 
acting  upon  numerous  trades,  increase  the  importation  of 
timber,  the  quarrying  of  stone,  the  manufacture  of  iron,  the 
mining  of  coal,  the  burning  of  bricks;  institute  a  variety 
of  special  manufactures  weekly  advertised  in  the  Railway 
Times;  and  call  into  being  some  new  classes  of  workers — 
drivers,  stokers,  cleaners,  plate-layers,  &e.  &c.  Then  come 
the  changes,  more  numerous  and  involved  still,  which  rail- 
ways in  action  produce  on  the  community  at  large.  The 
organization  of  every  business  is  more  or  less  modified ;  ease 
of  communication  makes  it  better  to  do  directly  what  was 
before  done  by  proxy;  agencies  are  established  where  pre- 
viously they  would  not  have  paid;  goods  are  obtained  from 
remote  Avholesale  houses  instead  of  near  retail  ones;  and 
commodities  are  used  which  distance  once  rendered  inacces- 
sible. The  rapidity  and  small  cost  of  carriage,  tend  to  spe- 
cialize more  than  ever  the  industries  of  different  districts — 
to  confine  each  manufacture  to  the  parts  in  which,  from  local 
advantages,  it  can  be  best  carried  on.  Economical  distribu- 
tion equalizes  prices,  and  also,  on  the  average,  lowers  prices : 
thus  bringing  clivers  articles  within  the  means  of  those  be- 
fore unable  to  buy  them,  and  so  increasing  their  comforts 
and  improving  their  habits.  At  the  same  time  the  practice 
of  travelling  is  immensely  extended.  Classes  who  before 
could  not  afford  it,  take  annual  trips  to  the  sea ;  visit  their  dis- 
tant relations ;  make  tours ;  and  so  we  are  benefited  in  body, 
feelings,  and  intellect.  The  more  prompt  transmission  of 
letters  and  of  news  produces  further  changes — makes  the 
pulse  of  the  nation  faster.  Yet  more,  there  arises  a  wide 
dissemination  of  cheap  literature  through  railway  book- 
stalls, and  of  advertisements  in  railway  carriages:  both  of 


THE  MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS.  467 

them  aiding  ulterior  progress.  And  the  innumerable 
changes  here  briefly  indicated  are  consequent  on  the  inven- 
tion of  the  locomotive  engine.  The  social  organism  has  been 
rendered  more  heterogeneous,  in  virtue  of  the  many  new 
occupations  introduced,  and  the  many  old  ones  further 
specialized;  prices  in  all  places  have  been  altered;  each 
trader  has,  more  or  less,  modified  his  way  of  doing  business; 
and  every  person  has  been  affected  in  his  actions,  thoughts, 
emotions. 

The  only  further  fact  demanding  notice,  is,  that  we  here 
see  more  clearly  than  ever,  that  in  proportion  as  the  area 
over  which  any  influence  extends,  becomes  heterogeneous, 
the  results  are  in  a  yet  higher  degree  multiplied  in  number 
and  kind.  While  among  the  primitive  tribes  to  whom  it 
was  first  known,  caoutchouc  caused  but  few  changes,  among 
ourselves  the  changes  have  been  so  many  and  varied 
that  the  history  of  them  occupies  a  volume.  Upon  the 
small,  homogeneous  community  inhabiting  one  of  the 
Hebrides,  the  electric  telegraph  would  produce,  were  it  used, 
scarcely  any  results;  but  in  England  the  results  it  produces 
are  multitudinous. 

Space  permitting,  the  synthesis  might  here  be  pursued 
in  relation  to  all  the  subtler  products  of  social  life.  It 
might  be  shown  how,  in  Science,  an  advance  of  one  division 
presently  advances  other  divisions — how  Astronomy  has 
been  immensely  forwarded  by  discoveries  in  Optics,  while 
other  optical  discoveries  have  initiated  Microscopic  Anato- 
my, and  greatly  aided  the  growth  of  Physiology — how 
Chemistry  has  indirectly  increased  our  knowledge  of  Elec- 
tricity, Magnetism,  Biology,  Geology — how  Electricity  has 
reacted  on  Chemistry  and  Magnetism,  developed  our  views 
of  Light  and  Heat,  and  disclosed  sundry  laws  of  nervous  ac- 
tion. In  Literature  the  same  truth  might  be  exhibited  in 
the  still-multiplying  forms  of  periodical  publications  that 
have  descended  from  the  first  newspaper,  and  which  have 
severally  acted  and  reacted  on  other  forms  of  literature  and 


468  THE   MULTIPLICATION   OF  EFFECTS. 

on  each  other ;  or  in  the  bias  given  by  each  book  of  power  to 
various  subsequent  books.  The  influence  which  a  new 
school  of  Painting  (as  that  of  the  pre-Kaffaelites)  exercises 
on  other  schools;  the  hints  which  all  kinds  of  pictorial  art 
are  deriving  from  Photography ;  the  complex  results  of  new 
critical  doctrines ;  might  severally  be  dwelt  on  as  displaying 
the  like  multiplication  of  effects.  But  it  would  needlessly 
tax  the  reader's  patience  to  detail,  in  their  many  ramifica- 
tions, these  various  changes:  here  become  so  involved  and 
subtle  as  to  be  followed  with  some  difficulty. 

§  162.  After  the  argument  which  closed  the  last  chap- 
ter, a  parallel  one  seems  here  scarcely  required.  For  sym- 
metry's sake,  however,  it  will  be  proper  briefly  to  point 
out  how  the  multiplication  of  effects,  like  the  instability 
of  the  homogeneous,  is  a  corollary  from  the  persistence  of 
force. 

Things  which  we  call  different  are  things  which  react  in 
different  ways;  and  we  can  know  them  as  different  only  by 
the  differences  in  their  reactions.  "When  we  distinguish 
bodies  as  hard  and  soft,  rough  and  smooth,  we  simply  mean 
that  certain  like  muscular  forces  expended  on  them  are 
followed  by  unlike  sets  of  sensations — unlike  reactive 
forces.  Objects  that  are  classed  as  red,  blue,  yellow,  &c., 
are  objects  that  decompose  light  in  strongly-contrasted 
ways;  that  is,  we  know  contrasts  of  colour  as  contrasts  in  the 
changes  produced  in  a  uniform  incident  force.  Manifestly, 
any  two  things  which  do  not  work  unequal  effects  on  con- 
sciousness, either  by  unequally  opposing  our  own  energies, 
or  by  impressing  our  senses  with  unequally  modified  forms 
of  certain  external  energies,  cannot  be  distinguished  by  us. 
Hence  the  proposition  that  the  different  parts  of  any  whole 
must  react  differently  on  a  uniform  incident  force,  and -must 
so  reduce  it  to  a  group  of  multiform  forces,  is  in  essence  a 
truism.  A  further  step  will  reduce  this  truism  to  its  lowest 
terms. 


THE  MULTIPLICATION   OF  EFFECTS.  469 

When,  from  unlikeness  between  the  effects  they  produce 
on  consciousness,  we  predicate  unlikeness  between  two  ob- 
jects, what  is  our  warrant?  and  what  do  we  mean  by  the 
unlikeness,  objectively  considered?  Our  warrant  is  the  per- 
sistence of  force.  Some  kind  or  amount  of  change  has  been 
wrought  in  us  by  the  one,  which  has  not  been  wrought  by 
the  other.  This  change  we  ascribe  to  some  force  exercised 
by  the  one  which  the  other  has  not  exercised.  And  we  have 
no  alternative  but  to  do  this,  or  to  assert  that  the  change  had 
no  antecedent;  which  is  to  deny  the  persistence  of  force. 
Whence  it  is  further  manifest  that  what  we  regard  as  the 
objective  unlikeness  is  the  presence  in  the  one  of  some  force, 
or  set  of  forces,  not  present  in  the  other — something  in  the 
kinds  or  amounts  or  directions  of  the  constituent  forces  of 
the  one,  which  those  of  the  other  do  not  parallel.  But  now 
if  things  or  parts  of  things  which  we  call  different,  are  those 
of  which  the  constituent  forces  differ  in  one  or  more  re- 
spects; what  must  happen  to  any  like  forces,  or  any  uniform 
force,  falling  on  them?  Such  like  forces,  or  parts  of  a  uni- 
form force,  must  be  differently  modified.  The  force  which 
is  present  in  the  one  and  not  in  the  other,  must  be  an  element 
in  the  conflict — must  produce  its  equivalent  reaction;  and 
must  so  affect  the  total  reaction.  To  say  otherwise  is  to  say 
that  this  differential  force  will  produce  no  effect;  which  is 
to  say  that  force  is  not  persistent. 

I  need  not  develop  this  corollary  further.  It  manifestly 
follows  that  a  uniform  force,  falling  on  a  uniform  aggre- 
gate, must  undergo  dispersion;  that  falling  on  an  aggregate 
made  up  of  unlike  parts,  it  must  undergo  dispersion  from 
each  part,  as  well  as  qualitative  differentiations ;  that  in  pro- 
portion as  the  parts  are  unlike,  these  qualitative  differentia- 
tions must  be  marked;  that  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
the  parts,  they  must  be  numerous ;  that  the  secondary  forces 
so  produced,  must  undergo  further  transformations  while 
working  equivalent  transformations  in  the  parts  that  change 
them;  and  similarly  with  the  forces  they  generate.     Thus 


470  THE   MULTIPLICATION  OF  EFFECTS. 

the  conclusions  that  a  part-cause  of  Evolution  is  the  multi- 
plication of  effects;  and  that  this  increases  in  geometrical 
progression  as  the  heterogeneity  becomes  greater;  are  not 
only  to  be  established  inductively,  but  are  deducible  from 
the  deepest  of  all  truths. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

SEGREGATION. 

§  163.  The  general  interpretation  of  Evolution  is  far 
from  being  completed  in  the  preceding  chapters.  We  must 
contemplate  its  changes  under  yet  another  aspect,  before  we 
can  form  a  definite  conception  of  the  process  constituted  by 
them.  Though  the  laws  already  set  forth,  furnish  a  key  to 
the  re-arrangement  of  parts  which  Evolution  exhibits,  in  so 
far  as  it  is  an  advance  from  the  uniform  to  the  multiform; 
they  furnish  no  key  to  this  re-arrangement  in  so  far  as  it  is 
an  advance  from  the  indefinite  to  the  definite.  On  studying 
the  actions  and  re-actions  everywhere  going  on,  we  have 
found  it  to  follow  inevitably  from  a  certain  primordial  truth, 
that  the  homogeneous  must  lapse  into  the  heterogeneous, 
and  that  the  heterogeneous  must  become  more  heterogene- 
ous ;  but  we  have  not  discovered  why  the  differently-affected 
parts  of  any  simple  whole,  become  clearly  marked  off  from 
each  other,  at  the  same  time  that  they  become  unlike.  Thus 
far  no  reason  has  been  assigned  why  there  should  not  ordi- 
narily arise  a  vague  chaotic  heterogeneity,  in  place  of  that 
orderly  heterogeneity  displayed  in  Evolution.  It  still  re- 
mains to  find  out  the  cause  of  that  local  integration  which 
accompanies  local  differentiation — that  gradually-completed 
segregation  of  like  units  into  a  group,  distinctly  separated 
from  neighbouring  groups  which  are  severally  made  up  of 
other  kinds  of  units.  The  rationale  will  be  conveniently  in- 
troduced by  a  few  instances  in  which  we  may  watch  this 
segregative  process  taking  place. 

471 


472  SEGREGATION. 

AVlien  towards  tlie  end  of  September,  the  trees  are  gain- 
ing their  autumn  colours,  and  we  are  hoping  shortly  to  see  a 
further  change  increasing  still  more  the  beauty  of  the  land- 
scape, we  are  not  uncommonly  disappointed  by  the  occur- 
rence of  an  equinoxial  gale.  Out  of  the  mixed  mass  of 
foliage  on  each  branch,  the  strong  current  of  air  carries 
away  the  decaying  and  brightly-tinted  leaves,  but  fails  to 
detach  those  which  are  still  green.  And  while  these  last, 
frayed  and  seared  by  long-continued  beatings  against  each 
other,  and  the  twigs  around  them,  give  a  sombre  colour  to 
the  woods,  the  red  and  yellow  and  orange  leaves  are  collected 
together  in  ditches  and  behind  walls  and  in  corners  where 
eddies  allow  them  to  settle.  That  is  to, say,  by  the  action  of 
that  uniform  force  which  the  wind  exerts  on  both  kinds,  the 
dying  leaves  are  picked  out  from  among  their  still  living 
companions  and  gathered  in  places  by  themselves.  Again, 
the  separation  of  particles  of  different  sizes,  as  dust  and  sand 
from  pebbles,  may  be  similarly  effected ;  as  we  see  on  every 
road  in  March.  And  from  the  days  of  Homer  downwards, 
the  power  of  currents  of  air,  natural  and  artificial,  to  part 
from  one  another  units  of  unlike  specific  gravities,  has 
been  habitually  utilized  in  the  winnowing  of  chaff  from 
wheat.  In  every  river  we  see  how  the  mixed  ma- 

terials carried  down,  are  separately  deposited — how  in  rap- 
ids the  bottom  gives  rest  to  nothing  but  boulders  and  peb- 
bles ;  how  where  the  current  is  not  so  strong,  sand  is  let  fall ; 
and  how,  in  still  places,  there  is  a  sediment  of  mud.  This 
selective  action  of  moving  water,  is  commonly  applied  in  the 
arts  to  obtain  masses  of  particles  of  different  degrees  of  fine- 
ness. Emery,  for  example,  after  being  ground,  is  carried  by 
a  slow  current  through  successive  compartments;  in  the  first 
of  which  the  largest  grains  subside;  in  the  second  of  which 
the  grains  that  reach  the  bottom  before  the  water  has  es- 
caped, are  somewhat  smaller;  in  the  third  smaller  still;  until 
in  the  last  there  are  deposited  only  those  finest  particles 
which  fall  so  slowly  through  the  water,  that  they  have 


SEGREGATION.  473 

not  previously  been  able  to  reach  the  bottom.  And  in 
a  way  that  is  different  though  equally  significant,  this  segre- 
gative effect  of  water  in  motion,  is  exemplified  in  the  carry- 
ing away  of  soluble  from  insoluble  matters — an  application 
of  it  hourly  made  in  every  laboratory.  The  effects  of 

the  uniform  forces  which  aerial  and  aqueous  currents  exer- 
cise, are  paralleled  by  those  of  uniform  forces  of  other 
orders.  Electric  attraction  will  separate  small  bodies  from 
large,  or  light  bodies  from  heavy.  By  magnetism,  grains  of 
iron  may  be  selected  from  among  other  grains;  as  by  the 
Sheffield  grinder,  whose  magnetized  gauze  mask  filters  out 
the  steel-dust  wdiich  his  wheel  gives  off,  from  the  stone-dust 
that  accompanies  it.  And  how  the  affinity  of  any  agent  act- 
ing differently  on  the  components  of  a  given  body,  enables 
us  to  take  away  some  component  and  leave  the  rest  behind,  is 
shown  in  almost  every  chemical  experiment. 

What  now  is  the  general  truth  here  variously  presented? 
How  are  these  several  facts  and  countless  similar  ones,  to  be 
expressed  in  terms  that  embrace  them  all?  In  each  case  we 
see  in  action  a  force  which  may  be  regarded  as  simple  or  uni- 
form— fluid  motion  in  a  certain  direction  at  a  certain  veloc- 
ity; electric  or  magnetic  attraction  of  a  given  amount; 
chemical  affinity  of  a  particular  kind :  or  rather,  in  strictness, 
the  acting  force  is  compounded  of  one  of  these  and  certain 
other  uniform  forces,  as  gravitation,  etc.  In  each  case  we 
have  an  aggregate  made  up  of  unlike  units — either  atoms  of 
different  substances  combined  or  intimately  mingled,  or 
fragments  of  the  same  substance  of  different  sizes,  or  other 
constituent  parts  that  are  unlike  in  their  specific  gravities, 
shapes,  or  other  attributes.  And  in  each  case  these  unlike 
units,  or  groups  of  units,  of  which  the  aggregate  consists, 
are,  under  the  influence  of  some  resultant  force  acting  indis- 
criminately on  them  all,  separated  from  each  other — segre- 
gated into  minor  aggregates,  each  consisting  of  units  that  are 
severally  like  each  other  and  unlike  those  of  the  other  minor 
aggregates.  Such  being  the  common  aspect  of  these 
32 


474  SEGREGATION. 

changes,  let  us  look  for  the  common  interpretation  of 
them. 

In  the  chapter  on  "  The  Instability  of  the  Homogene- 
ous/7 it  was  shown  that  a  uniform  force  falling  on  any  aggre- 
gate, produces  unlike  modifications  in  its  different  parts — 
turns  the  uniform  into  the  multiform  and  the  multiform 
into  the  more  multiform.  The  transformation  thus 
wrought,  consists  of  either  insensible  or  sensible  changes  of 
relative  position  among  the  units,  or  of  both — either  of 
those  molecular  re-arrangements  which  we  call  chemical,  or 
of  those  larger  transpositions  which  are  distinguished  as 
mechanical,  or  of  the  two  united.  Such  portion  of  the  per- 
manently effective  force  as  reaches  each  different  part,  or 
differently-conditioned  part,  may  be  expended  in  modify- 
ing the  mutual  relations  of  its  constituents ;  or  it  may  be  ex- 
pended in  moving  the  part  to  another  place;  or  it  may  be 
expended  partially  in  the  first  and  partially  in  the  second. 
Hence,  so  much  of  the  permanently  effective  force  as  does 
not  work  the  one  kind  of  effect,  must  work  the  other  kind. 
It  is  manifest  that  if  of  the  permanently  effective  force 
which  falls  on  some  compound  unit  of  an  aggregate,  little, 
if  any,  is  absorbed  in  re-arranging  the  ultimate  components 
of  such  compound  unit,  much  or  the  whole,  must  show  itself 
in  motion  of  such  compound  unit  to  some  other  place  in  the 
aggregate ;  and  conversely,  if  little  or  none  of  this  force  is  ab- 
sorbed in  generating  mechanical  transposition,  much  or  the 
whole  must  go  to  produce  molecular  alterations.  What 

now  must  follow  from  this?  In  cases  where  none  or  only 
part  of  the  force  generates  chemical  re-distributions,  what 
physical  re-distributions  must  be  generated  ?  Parts  that  are 
similar  to  each  other  will  be  similarly  acted  on  by  the  force; 
and  will  similarly  react  on  it.  Parts  that  are  dissimilar  will 
be  dissimilarly  acted  on  by  the  force;  and  will  dissimilarlv 
react  on  it.  Hence  the  permanently  effective  incident 
force,  when  wholly  or  partially  transformed  into  mechanical 
motion  of  the  units,  will  produce  like  motions  in  units  that 


SEGREGATION.  475 

are  alike,  and  unlike  motions  in  units  that  are  unlike.  If 
then,  in  an  aggregate  containing  two  or  more  orders  of 
mixed  units,  those  of  the  same  order  will  be  moved  in  the 
same  way,  and  in  a  way  that  differs  from  that  in  which  units 
of  other  orders  are  moved,  the  respective  orders  must  segre- 
gate. A  group  of  like  things  on  which  are  impressed  mo- 
tions that  are  alike  in  amount  and  direction,  must  be  trans- 
ferred as  a  group  to  another  place,  and  if  they  are  mingled 
with  some  group  of  other  things,  on  which  the  motions  im- 
pressed are  like  each  other,  but  unlike  those  of  the  first 
group  in  amount  or  direction  or  both,  these  other  things  must 
be  transferred  as  a  group  to  some  other  place — the  mixed 
units  must  undergo  a  simultaneous  selection  and  separation. 
In  further  elucidation  of  this  process,  it  will  be  well  here 
to  set  down  a  few  instances  in  which  we  may  see  that,  other 
things  equal,  the  definiteness  of  the  separation  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  definiteness  of  the  difference  between  the  units. 
Take  a  handful  of  any  pounded  substance,  containing  frag- 
ments of  all  sizes ;  and  let  it  fall  to  the  ground  while  a 
gentle  breeze  is  blowing.  The  large  fragments  will  be 
collected  together  on  the  ground  almost  immediately  under 
the  hand;  somewhat  smaller  fragments  will  be  carried  a 
little  to  the  leeward;  still  smaller  ones  a  little  further;  and 
those  minute  particles  which  we  call  dust,  will  be  drifted  a 
long  way  before  they  reach  the  earth :  that  is,  the  integration 
is  indefinite  where  the  difference  among  the  fragments  is 
indefinite,  though  the  divergence  is  greatest  where  the 
difference  is  greatest.  If,  again,  the  handful  be  made  up  of 
quite  distinct  orders  of  units — as  pebbles,  coarse  sand,  and 
dust — these  will,  under  like  conditions,  be  segregated  with 
comparative  definiteness:  the  pebbles  will  drop  almost  verti- 
cally; the  sand  will  fall  in  an  inclined  direction,  and  deposit 
itself  within  a  tolerably  circumscribed  space  beyond  the 
pebbles;  while  the  dust  will  be  blown  almost  horizontally  to 
a  great  distance.  A  case  in  which  another  kind  of  force 
comes   into    play,    will    still    better   illustrate    this    truth. 


476  SEGREGATION. 

Through  a  mixed  aggregate  of  soluble  aud  insoluble  sub- 
stances, let  water  slowly  percolate.  There  will  in  the  first 
place  be  a  distinct  parting  of  the  substances  that  are  the 
most  widely  contrasted  in  their  relations  to  the  acting 
forces:  the  soluble  will  be  carried  away;  the  insoluble  will 
remain  behind.  Further,  some  separation,  though  a  less 
definite  one,  will  be  effected  among  the  soluble  substances; 
since  the  first  part  of  the  current  will  remove  the  most  solu- 
ble substances  in  the  largest  amounts,  and  after  these  have 
been  all  dissolved,  the  current  will  still  continue  to  bring 
out  the  remaining  less  soluble  substances.  Even  the  undis- 
solved matters  will  have  simultaneously  undergone  a  certain 
segregation;  for  the  percolating  fluid  will  carry  down  the 
minute  fragments  from  among  the  large  ones,  and  will  de- 
posit those  of  small  specific  gravity  in  one  place,  and  those 
of  great  specific  gravity  in  another.  To  complete 

the  elucidation  we  must  glance  at  the  obverse  fact ;  namely, 
that  mixed  units  which  differ  but  slightly,  are  moved  in  but 
slightly-different  ways  by  incident  forces,  and  can  therefore 
be  separated  only  by  such  adjustments  of  the  incident  forces 
*  as  allow  slight  differences  to  become  appreciable  factors  in 
the  result.  This  truth  is  made  manifest  by  antithesis  in  the 
instances  just  given;  but  it  may  be  made  much  more  mani- 
fest by  a  few  such  instances  as  those  which  chemical  analy- 
sis supplies  in  abundance.  The  parting  of  alcohol  from 
water  by  distillation  is  a  good  one.  Here  we  have  atoms  con- 
sisting of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  mingled  with  atoms  consist- 
ing of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon.  The  two  orders  of 
atoms  have  a  considerable  similarity  of  nature:  they  similar- 
ly maintain  a  fluid  form  at  ordinary  temperatures;  they 
similarly  become  gaseous  more  and  more  rapidly  as  the  tem- 
perature is  raised ;  and  they  boil  at  points  not  very  far  apart. 
Xow  this  comparative  likeness  of  the  atoms  is  accompanied 
by  difficulty  in  segregating  them.  If  the  mixed  fluid  is 
unduly  heated,  much  water  distils  over  with  the  alcohol: 
it  is  only  within  a  narrow  range  of  temperature,  that  the  one 


SEGREGATION.  477 

set  of  atoms  are  driven  off  rather  than  the  others;  and 
even  then  not  a  few  of  the  others  accompany  them.  The 
most  interesting  and  instructive  example,  however,  is  fur- 
nished by  certain  phenomena  of  crystallization.  When 
several  salts  that  have  little  analogy  of  constitution,  are 
dissolved  in  the  same  body  of  water,  they  are  separated 
without  much  trouble,  by  crystallization:  their  respective 
units  moved  towards  each  other,  as  physicists  suppose,  by 
polar  forces,  segregate  into  crystals  of  their  respective 
kinds.  The  crystals  of  each  salt  do,  indeed,  usually  con- 
tain certain  small  amounts  of  the  other  salts  present  in  the 
solution — especially  when  the  crystallization  has  been  rap- 
id: but  from  these  other  salts  they  are  severally  freed  by 
repeated  re-solutions  and  crystallizations.  Mark  now,  how- 
ever, that  the  reverse  is  the  case  when  the  salts  contained  in 
the  same  body  of  water  are  chemically  homologous.  The 
nitrates  of  baryta  and  lead,  or  the  sulphates  of  zinc,  soda, 
and  magnesia,  unite  in  the  same  crystals ;  nor  will  they  crys- 
tallize separately  if  these  crystals  be  dissolved  afresh,  and 
afresh  crystallized,  even  with  great  care.  On  seeking  the 
cause  of  this  anomaly,  chemists  found  that  such  salts  were 
isomorphous — that  their  atoms,  though  not  chemically 
identical,  were  identical  in  the  proportions  of  acid,  base, 
and  water,  composing  them,  and  in  their  crystalline  forms : 
whence  it  was  inferred  that  their  atoms  are  nearly  alike 
in  structure.  Thus  is  clearly  illustrated  the  truth,  that  units 
of  unlike  kinds  are  selected  out  and  separated  with  a  readi- 
ness proportionate  to  the  degree  of  their  unlikeness.  In  the 
first  case  we  see  that  being  dissimilar  in  their  forms,  but  sim- 
ilar in  so  far  as  they  are  soluble  in  water  of  a  certain  tem- 
perature, the  atoms  segregate,  though  imperfectly.  In  the 
second  case  we  see  that  the  atoms,  having  not  only  the  like- 
ness implied  by  solubility  in  the  same  menstruum,  but  also 
a  great  likeness  of  structure,  do  not  segregate — are  sorted 
and  parted  from  each  other  only  under  quite  special  con- 
ditions, and  then  very  incompletely.     That  is,  the  incident 


478  SEGREGATION. 

force  of  mutual  polarity  impresses  unlike  motions  on  the 
mixed  units  in  proportion  as  they  are  unlike ;  and  therefore, 
in  proportion  as  they  are  unlike,  tends  to  deposit  them  in 
separate  places. 

There  is  a  converse  cause  of  segregation,  which  it  is 
needless  here  to  treat  of  with  equal  fulness.  If  different 
units  acted  on  by  the  same  force,  must  be  differently  moved ; 
so,  too,  must  units  of  the  same  kind  be  differently  moved  by 
different  forces.  Supposing  some  group  of  units  forming- 
part  of  a  homogeneous  aggregate,  are  unitedly  exposed  to  a 
force  that  is  unlike  in  amount  or  direction  to  the  force  acting 
on  the  rest  of  the  aggregate;  then  this  group  of  units  will 
separate  from  the  rest,  provided  that,  of  the  force  so  acting 
on  it,  there  remains  any  portion  not  dissipated  in  molecular 
vibrations,  nor  absorbed  in  producing  molecular  re-arrange- 
ments. After  ail  that  has  been  said  above,  this  proposition 
needs  no  defence. 

Before  ending  our  preliminary  exposition,  a  comple- 
mentary truth  must  be  specified ;  namely,  that  mixed  forces 
are  segregated  by  the  reaction  of  uniform  matters,  just  as 
mixed  matters  are  segregated  by  the  action  of  uniform 
forces.  Of  this  truth  a  complete  and  sufficient  illustration 
is  furnished  by  the  dispersion  of  refracted  light.  A  beam 
of  light,  made  up  of  ethereal  undulations  of  different  orders, 
is  not  uniformly  deflected  by  a  homogeneous  refracting 
body;  but  the  different  orders  of  undulations  it  contains,  are 
deflected  at  different  angles:  the  result  being  that  these 
different  orders  of  undulations  are  separated  and  integrated, 
and  so  produce  what  we  know  as  the  colours  of  the  spectrum. 
A  segregation  of  another  kind  occurs  when  rays  of  light 
traverse  an  obstructing  medium.  Those  rays  which  consist 
of  comparatively  short  undulations,  are  absorbed  before 
those  which  consist  of  comparatively  long  ones;  and  the  red 
rays,  which  consist  of  the  longest  undulations,  alone  pene- 
trate when  the  obstruction  is  very  great.  How,  conversely, 
there  is  produced  a  separation  of  like  forces  by  the  reaction 


SEGREGATION.  479 

of  unlike  matters,  is  also  made  manifest  by  the  phenomena 
of  refraction:  since  adjacent  and  parallel  beams  of  light, 
falling  on,  and  passing  through,  unlike  substances,  are  made 
to  diverge. 

§  164.  On  the  assumption  of  their  nebular  origin,  stars 
and  planets  exemplify  that  cause  of  material  segregation 
last  assigned — the  action  of  unlike  forces  on  like  units. 

In  a  preceding  chapter  (§  150)  we  saw  that  if  matter 
ever  existed  in  a  diffused  form,  it  could  not  continue  uni- 
formly distributed,  but  must  break  up  into  masses.  It  was 
shown  that  in  the  absence  of  a  perfect  balance  of  mutual  at- 
tractions among  atoms  dispersed  through  unlimited  space, 
there  must  arise  breaches  of  continuity  throughout  the  ag- 
gregate formed  by  them,  and  a  concentration  of  it  towards 
centres  of  dominant  attraction.  "Where  any  such  breach  of 
continuity  occurs,  and  the  atoms  that  were  before  adjacent 
separate  from  each  other;  they  do  so  in  consequence  of  a 
difference  in  the  forces  to  which  they  are  respectively  sub- 
ject. The  atoms  on  the  one  side  of  the  breach  are  exposed 
to  a  certain  surplus  attraction  in  the  direction  in  which  they 
begin  to  move;  and  those  on  the  other  to  a  surplus  attrac- 
tion in  the  opposite  direction.  That  is,  the  adjacent  groups 
of  like  units  are  exposed  to  unlike  resultant  forces;  and  ac- 
cordingly separate  and  integrate. 

The  formation  and  detachment  of  a  nebulous  ring,  illus- 
trates the  same  general  principle.  To  conclude,  as  Laplace 
did,  that  the  equatorial  portion  of  a  rotating  nebulous 
spheroid,  will,  during  concentration,  acquire  a  centrifugal 
force  sufficient  to  prevent  it  from  following  the  rest  of  the 
contracting  mass,  is  to  conclude  that  such  portions  will 
remain  behind  as  are  in  common  subject  to  a  certain  differ- 
ential force.  The  line  of  division  between  the  ring  and 
the  spheroid,  must  be  a  line  inside  of  which  the  aggregative 
force  is  greater  than  the  force  resisting  aggregation;  and 
outside  of  which  the  force  resisting  aggregation  is  greater 


4:80  SEGREGATION. 

than  the  aggregative  force.  Hence  the  alleged  process  con- 
forms to  the  law  that  among  like  units,  exposed  to  unlike 
forces,  the  similarly  conditioned  part  from  the  dissimilarly 
conditioned. 

§  165.  Those  geologic  changes  usually  classed  as  aque- 
ous, display  under  numerous  forms  the  segregation  of  unlike 
units  by  a  uniform  incident  force.  On  sea-shores,  the  waves 
are  ever  sorting-out  and  separating  the  mixed  materials 
against  which  they  break.  From  each  mass  of  fallen  cliff, 
the  rising  and  ebbing  tide  carries  away  all  those  particles 
which  are  so  small  as  to  remain  long  suspended  in  the 
water;  and,  at  some  distance  from  shore,  deposits  them  in 
the  shape  of  fine  sediment.  Large  particles,  sinking  with 
comparative  rapidity,  are  accumulated  into  beds  of  sand 
near  low-water  mark.  The  coarse  grit  and  small  pebbles 
collect  together  on  the  incline  up  which  the  breakers  rush. 
And  on  the  top  lie  the  larger  stones  and  boulders.  Still 
more  specific  segregations  may  occasionally  be  observed. 
Flat  pebbles,  produced  by  the  breaking  down  of  laminated 
rock,  are  sometimes  separately  collected  in  one  part  of  a 
shingle  bank.  On  this  shore  the  deposit  is  wholly  of  mud; 
on  that  it  is  wholly  of  sand.  Here  we  find  a  sheltered  cove 
filled  with  small  pebbles  almost  of  one  size;  and  there,  in  a 
curved  bay  one  end  of  which  is  more  exposed  than  the  other, 
we  see  a  progressive  increase  in  the  massiveness  of  the  stones 
as  we  walk  from  the  less  exposed  to  the  more  exposed  end. 
Trace  the  history  of  each  geologic  deposit,  and  we  are 
quickly  led  down  to  the  fact,  that  mixed  fragments  of 
matter,  differing  in  their  sizes  or  weights,  are,  when  ex- 
posed to  the  momentum  and  friction  of  water,  joined 
with  the  attraction  of  the  Earth,  selected  from  each  other, 
and  united  into  groups  of  comparatively  like  fragments. 
And  we  see  that,  other  things  equal,  the  separation 
is  definite  in  proportion  as  the  differences  of  the  units  are 
marked.  After   they   have   been   formed,   sedi- 


SEGREGATION.  481 

mentary  strata  exhibit  segregations  of  another  kind.  The 
flints  and  the  nodnles  of  iron  pyrites  that  are  found  in  chalk, 
as  well  as  the  silicious  concretions  which  occasionally  occur 
in  limestone,  can  be  interpreted  only  as  aggregations  of 
atoms  of  silex  or  sulphnret  of  iron,  originally  diffused  al- 
most uniformly  through  the  deposit,  but  gradually  collected 
round  certain  centres,  notwithstanding  the  solid  or  semi- 
solid state  of  the  surrounding  matter.  What  is  called  bog 
iron-ore  supplies  the  conditions  and  the  result  in  still  more 
obvious  correlation. 

Among  igneous  changes  we  do  not  find  so  many  exam- 
ples of  the  process  described.  When  distinguishing  simple 
and  compound  evolution,  it  was  pointed  out  (§  102)  that  an 
excessive  quantity  of  contained  molecular  motion,  prevents 
permanence  in  those  secondary  re-distributions  which  make 
evolution  compound.  Nevertheless,  geological  phenomena 
of  this  order  are  not  barren  of  illustrations.  Where  the 
mixed  matters  composing  the  Earth's  crust  have  been  raised 
to  a  very  high  temperature,  segregation  habitually  takes 
place  as  the  temperature  diminishes.  Sundry  of  the  sub- 
stances that  escape  in  a  gaseous  form  from  volcanoes,  sub- 
lime into  crystals  on  coming  against  cool  surfaces;  and  so- 
lidifying as  these  substances  do,  at  different  temperatures, 
they  are  deposited  at  different  parts  of  the  crevices  through 
which  they  are  emitted  together.  The  best  illustration, 
however,  is  furnished  by  the  changes  that  occur  during  the 
slow  cooling  of  igneous  rock.  When,  through  one  of  the 
fractures  from  time  to  time  made  in  the  solid  shell  which 
forms  the  Earth's  crust,  a  portion  of  the  molten  nucleus  is 
extruded ;  and  when  this  is  cooled  with  comparative  rapidity, 
through  free  radiation  and  contact  with  cold  masses;  it  forms 
a  substance  known  as  trap  or  basalt — a  substance  that  is  uni- 
form in  texture,  though  made  up  of  various  ingredients. 
But  when,  not  escaping  through  the  superficial  strata,  such 
a  portion  of  the  molten  nucleus  is  slowly  cooled,  it  becomes 
what  we  know  as  granite:  the  mingled  particles  of  quartz. 


482  SEGREGATION. 

feldspar,  and  mica,  being  kept  for  a  long  time  in  a  fluid 
and  semi-fluid  state — a  state  of  comparative  mobility — un- 
dergo tliose  changes  of  position  which  the  forces  impressed 
on  them  by  their  fellow  units  necessitate.  Having  time  in 
which  to  generate  the  requisite  motions  of  the  atoms,  the 
differential  forces  arising  from  mutual  polarity,  segregate 
the  quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica,  into  crystals.  How  com- 
pletely this  is  dependent  on  the  long-continued  agitation  of 
the  mixed  particles,  and  consequent  long-continued  mobil- 
ity by  small  differential  forces,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  in 
granite  dykes,  the  crystals  in  the  centre  of  the  mass,  where 
the  fluidity  or  semi-fluidity  continued  for  a  longer  time,  are 
much  larger  than  those  at  the  sides,  where  contact  with  the 
neighbouring  rock  caused  more  rapid  cooling  and  solidifica- 
tion. 

§  166.  The  actions  going  on  throughout  an  organism 
are  so  involved  and  subtle,  that  we  cannot  expect  to  identify 
the  particular  forces  by  which  particular  segregations  are 
effected.  Among  the  few  instances  admitting  of  tolerably 
definite  interpretation,  the  best  are  those  in  which  mechani- 
cal pressures  and  tensions  are  the  agencies  at  work.  We 
shall  discover  several  on  studying  the  bony  frame  of  the 
higher  animals. 

The  vertebral  column  of  a  man,  is  subject,  as  a  whole,  to 
certain  general  strains — the  weight  of  the  body,  together 
with  the  reactions  involved  by  all  considerable  muscular 
efforts;  and  in  conformity  with  this,  it  has  become  segre- 
gated as  a  whole.  At  the  same  time,  being  exposed  to  differ- 
ent forces  in  the  course  of  those  lateral  bendings  which  the 
movements  necessitate,  its  parts  retain  a  certain  separate- 
ness.  And  if  we  trace  up  the  development  of  the  vertebral 
column  from  its  primitive  form  of  a  cartilaginous  cord  in  the 
lowest  fishes,  we  see  that,  throughout,  it  maintains  an  inte- 
gration corresponding  to  the  unity  of  the  incident  forces, 
joined  with  a  division  into  segments  corresponding  to  the 


SEGREGATION.  4§3 

variety  of  the  incident  forces.  Each  segment,  con- 

sidered apart,  exemplifies  the  trnth  more  simply.  A  verte- 
bra is  not  a  single  bone,  but  consists  of  a  central  mass  with 
sundry  appendages  or  processes;  and  in  rudimentary  types 
of  vertebrae,  these  appendages  are  quite  separate  from  the 
central  mass,  and,  indeed,  exist  before  it  makes  its  appear- 
ance. But  these  several  independent  bones,  constituting  a 
primitive  spinal  segment,  are  subject  to  a  certain  aggregate 
of  forces  which  agree  more  than  they  differ:  as  the  fulcrum 
to  a  group  of  muscles  habitually  acting  together,  they  per- 
petually undergo  certain  reactions  in  common.  And  ac- 
cordingly, we  see  that  in  the  course  of  development  they 
gradually  coalesce.  Still  clearer  is  the  illustration 

furnished  by  spinal  segments  that  become  fused  together 
where  they  are  together  exposed  to  some  predominant  strain. 
The  sacrum  consists  of  a  group  of  vertebrae  firmly  united. 
In  the  ostrich  and  its  congeners  there  are  from  seventeen  to 
twenty  sacral  vertebrae;  and  besides  being  confluent  with 
each  other,  these  are  confluent  with  the  iliac  bones,  which 
run  on  each  side  of  them.  If  now  we  assume  these  vertebrae 
to  have  been  originally  separate,  as  they  still  are  in  the  em- 
bryo bird ;  and  if  we  consider  the  mechanical  conditions  to 
which  they  must  in  such  case  have  been  exposed;  we  shall 
see  that  their  union  results  in  the  alleged  way.  For  through 
these  vertebrae  the  entire  weight  of  the  body  is  transferred 
to  the  legs :  the  legs  support  the  pelvic  arch ;  the  pelvic  arch 
supports  the  sacrum;  and  to  the  sacrum  is  articulated  the 
rest  of  the  spine,  with  all  the  limbs  and  organs  attached  to 
it.  Hence,  if  separate,  the  sacral  vertebrae  must  be  held 
firmly  together  by  strongly-contracted  muscles;  and  must, 
by  implication,  be  prevented  from  partaking  in  those  lateral 
movements  which  the  other  vertebrae  undergo — they  must 
be  subject  to  a  common  strain,  while  they  are  preserved 
from  strains  which  would  affect  them  differently;  and 
so  they  fulfil  the  conditions  under  which  segregation 
occurs.  But  the  cases  in  which  cause  and  effect 


484  SEGREGATION. 

are  brought  into  the  most  obvious  relation,  are  supplied  by 
the  limbs.  The  metacarpal  bones  (those  which  in  man  sup- 
port the  palm  of  the  hand)  are  separate  from  each  other  in 
the  majority  of  mammalia:  the  separate  actions  of  the 
toes  entailing  on  them  slight  amounts  of  separate  move- 
ments. This  is  not  so  however  in  the  ox-tribe  and  the 
horse-tribe.  In  the  ox-tribe,  only  the  middle  metacarpals 
(third  and  fourth)  are  developed;  and  these,  attaining  mas- 
sive proportions,  coalesce  to  form  the  cannon  bone.  In  the 
horse-tribe,  the  segregation  is  what  we  may  distinguish 
as  indirect:  the  second  and  fourth  metacarpals  are  present 
only  as  rudiments  united  to  the  sides  of  the  third,  while 
the  third  is  immensely  developed;  thus  forming  a  cannon 
bone  which  differs  from  that  of  the  ox  in  being  a  single 
cylinder,  instead  of  two  cylinders  fused  together.  The 
metatarsus  in  these  quadrupeds  exhibits  parallel  changes. 
Isow  each  of  these  metamorphoses  occurs  where  the  differ- 
ent bones  grouped  together  have  no  longer  any  differ- 
ent functions,  but  retain  only  a  common  function.  The 
feet  of  oxen  and  horses  are  used  solely  for  locomotion — are 
not  put  like  those  of  unguiculate  mammals  to  purposes 
which  involve  some  relative  movements  of  the  metacarpals. 
Thus  there  directly  or  indirectly  results  a  single  mass  of  bone 
where  the  incident  force  is  single.  And  for  the  inference 
that  these  facts  have  a  causal  connexion,  we  find  confirma- 
tion throughout  the  entire  class  of  birds;  in  the  wings 
and  legs  of  which,  like  segregations  are  found  under  like 
conditions.  While  this  sheet  is  passing  through  the 

press,  a  fact  illustrating  this  general  truth  in  a  yet  more 
remarkable  manner,  has  been  mentioned  to  me  by  Prof. 
Huxley;  who  kindly  allows  me  to  make  use  of  it  while  still 
unpublished  by  him.  The  Glyptodon,  an  extinct  mammal 
found  fossilized  in  South  America,  has  long  been  known  as  a 
large  uncouth  creature  allied  to  the  Armadillo,  but  having  a 
massive  dermal  armour  consisting  of  polygonal  plates  close- 
ly fitted  together  so  as  to  make  a  vast  box,  inclosing  the  body 


SEGREGATION.  485 

in  such  way  as  effectually  to  prevent  it  from  being  bent, 
laterally  or  vertically,  in  the  slightest  degree.  This  bony 
box,  which  must  have  weighed  several  hundred-weight,  was 
supported  on  the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae,  and  on 
the  adjacent  bones  of  the  pelvic  and  thoracic  arches.  And 
the  significant  fact  now  to  be  noted,  is,  that  here,  where  the 
trunk  vertebrae  were  together  .exposed  to  the  pressure  of  this 
heavy  dermal  armour,  at  the  same  time  that,  by  its  rigidity, 
they  were  preserved  from  all  relative  movements,  the  entire 
series  of  them  were  united  into  one  solid,  continuous  bone. 
The  formation  and  maintenance  of  a  species,  considered 
as  an  assemblage  of  similar  organisms,  is  interpretable  in 
an  analogous  way.  We  have  already  seen  that  in  so  far  as 
the  members  of  a  species  are  subject  to  different  sets  of  inci- 
dent forces,  they  are  differentiated,  or  divided  into  varieties. 
And  here  it  remains  to  add  that  in  so  far  as  they  are  subject 
to  like  sets  of  incident  forces,  they  are  segregated,  or  reduced 
to,  and  kept  in,  the  state  of  a  uniform  aggregate.  For  by  the 
process  of  "  natural  selection,"  there  is  a  continual  purifica- 
tion of  each  species  from  those  individuals  which  depart 
from  the  common  type  in  ways  that  unfit  them  for  the  con- 
ditions of  their  existence.  Consequently,  there  is  a  contin- 
ual leaving  behind  of  those  individuals  which  are  in  all  re- 
spects fit  for  the  conditions  of  their  existence ;  and  are  there- 
fore very  nearly  alike.  The  circumstances  to  which  any 
species  is  exposed,  being,  as  we  before  saw,  an  involved  com- 
bination of  incident  forces;  and  the  members  of  the  species 
having  mixed  with  them  some  that  differ  more  than  usual 
from  the  average  structure  required  for  meeting  these 
forces;  it  results  that  these  forces  are  constantly  separating 
such  divergent  individuals  from  the  rest,  and  so  preserving 
the  uniformity  of  the  rest — keeping  up  its  integrity  as  a  spe- 
cies. Just  as  the  changing  autumn  leaves  are  picked  out  by 
the  wind  from  among  the  green  ones  around  them,  or  just  as, 
to  use  Prof.  Huxley's  simile,  the  smaller  fragments  pass 
through  the  sieve  while  the  larger  are  kept  back;  so,  the 


4S6  SEGREGATION. 

uniform  incidence  of  external  forces  affects  the  members  of 
a  group  of  organisms  similarly  in  proportion  as  they  are  simi- 
lar, and  differently  in  proportion  as  they  are  different;  and 
thus  is  ever  segregating  the  like  by  parting  the  unlike  from 
them.  Whether  these  separated  members  are  killed  off,  as 
mostly  happens,  or  whether,  as  otherwise  happens,  they  sur- 
vive and  multiply  into  a  distinct  variety,  in  consequence  of 
their  fitness  to  certain  partially  unlike  conditions,  matters 
not  to  the  argument.  The  one  case  conforms  to  the  law,  that 
the  unlike  units  of  an  aggregate  are  sorted  into  their  kinds 
and  parted  when  uniformly  subject  to  the  same  incident 
forces ;  and  the  other  to  the  converse  law,  that  the  like  units 
of  an  aggregate  are  parted  and  separately  grouped  when  sub- 
ject to  different  incident  forces.  And  on  consulting  Mr. 
Darwin's  remarks  on  divergence  of  character,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  segregations  thus  caused  tend  ever  to  become  more 
definite. 

§  167.  Mental  evolution  under  one  of  its  leading  as- 
pects, we  found  to  consist  in  the  formation  of  groups  of  like 
objects  and  like  relations — a  differentiation  of  the  various 
things  originally  confounded  together  in  one  assemblage, 
and  an  integration  of  each  separate  order  of  things  into  a 
separate  group  (§  153).  Here  it  remains  to  point  out  that 
while  unlikeness  in  the  incident  forces  is  the  cause  of  such 
differentiations,  likeness  in  the  incident  forces  is  the  cause  of 
such  integrations.  For  what  is  the  process  through  which 
classifications  are  established?  At  first,  in  common  with 
the  uninitiated,  the  botanist  recognizes  only  such  conven- 
tional divisions  as  those  which  agriculture  has  established — 
distinguishes  a  few  vegetables  and  cereals,  and  groups  the 
rest  together  into  the  one  miscellaneous  aggregate  of  wild 
plants.  How  do  these  wild  plants  become  grouped  in  his 
mind  into  orders,  genera,  and  species ?  Each  plant  he  exam- 
ines yields  him  a  certain  complex  impression.  Every  now 
and  then  he  picks  up  a  plant  like  one  before  seen;  and  the 


SEGREGATION.  437 

recognition  of  it  is  the  production  in  him  of  a  like  connected 
group  of  sensations,  by  a  like  connected  group  of  attributes. 
That  is  to  say,  there  is  produced  throughout  the  nerves  con- 
cerned, a  combined  set  of  changes,  similar  to  a  combined  set 
of  changes  before  produced.  Considered  analytically,  each 
such  combined  set  of  changes  is  a  combined  set  of  molecular 
modifications  wrought  in  the  affected  part  of  the  organism. 
On  every  repetition  of  the  impression,  a  like  combined  set  of 
molecular  modifications  is  superposed  on  the  previous  ones, 
and  makes  them  greater:  thus  generating  an  internal  idea 
corresponding  to  these  similar  external  objects.  Meanwhile, 
another  kind  of  plant  produces  in  the  brain  of  the  botanist 
another  set  of  combined  changes  or  molecular  modifications 
— a  set  which  does  not  agree  with  and  deepen  the  one  we 
have  been  considering,  but  disagrees  with  it;  and  by  repeti- 
tion of  such  there  is  generated  a  different  idea  answering  to 
a  different  species.  What  now  is  the  nature  of  this 

process  expressed  in  general  terms?  On  the  one  hand  there 
are  the  like  and  unlike  things  from  which  severally  emanate 
the  groups  of  forces  by  which  we  perceive  them.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  the  organs  of  sense  and  percipient 
centres,  through  which,  in  the  course  of  observation,  these 
groups  of  forces  pass.  In  passing  through  these  organs  of 
sense  and  percipient  centres,  the  like  groups  of  forces  are  se- 
gregated, or  separated  from  the  unlike  groups  of  forces;  and 
each  such  series  of  groups  of  forces,  parted  in  this  way  from 
others,  answering  to  an  external  genus  or  species,  constitutes 
a  state  of  consciousness  which  we  call  our  idea  of  the  genus 
or  species.  We  before  saw  that  as  well  as  a  separation  of 
mixed  matters  by  the  same  force,  there  is  a  separation  of 
mixed  forces  by  the  same  matter;  and  here  we  may  further 
see  that  the  unlike  forces  so  separated,  work  unlike  struc- 
tural changes  in  the  aggregate  that  separates  them — struc- 
tural changes  each  of  which  thus  represents,  and  is  equiva- 
lent to,  the  integrated  series  of  motions  that  has  produced  it. 
By  a  parallel  process,  the  connexions  of  co-existence  and 


488  SEGREGATION. 

sequence  among  impressions,  become  sorted  into  kinds  and 
grouped  simultaneously  with  the  impressions  themselves. 
When  two  phenomena  that  have  been  experienced  in  a 
given  order,  are  repeated  in  the  same  order,  those  nerves 
which  before  were  affected  by  the  transition  are  again  af- 
fected; and  such  molecular  modification  as  they  received 
from  the  first  motion  propagated  through  them,  is  increased 
by  this  second  motion  along  the  same  route.  Each  such  mo- 
tion works  a  structural  alteration,  which,  in  conformity  with 
the  general  law  set  forth  in  Chapter  IX.,  involves  a  diminu- 
tion of  the  resistance  to  all  such  motions  that  afterwards 
occur.  The  segregation  of  these  successive  motions  (or  more 
strictly,  the  permanently  effective  portions  of  them  expend- 
ed in  overcoming  resistance)  thus  becomes  the  cause  of,  and 
the  measure  of,  the  mental  connexion  between  the  impres- 
sions which  the  phenomena  produce.  Meanwhile,  phenom- 
ena that  are  recognized  as  different  from  these,  being  phe- 
nomena that  therefore  affect  different  nervous  elements,  will 
have  their  connexions  severally  represented  by  motions 
along  other  routes;  and  along  each  of  these  other  routes,  the 
nervous  discharges  will  severally  take  place  with  a  readiness 
proportionate  to  the  frequency  with  which  experience  repeats 
the  connexion  of  phenomena.  The  classification  of  relations 
must  hence  go  on  pari  passu  with  the  classification  of  the  re- 
lated things.  In  common  with  the  mixed  sensations  received 
from  the  external  world,  the  mixed  relations  it  presents, 
cannot  be  impressed  on  the  organism  without  more  or  less 
segregation  of  them  resulting.  And  through  this  continu- 
ous sorting  and  grouping  together  of  changes  or  motions, 
which  constitutes  nervous  function,  there  is  gradually 
wrought  that  sorting  and  grouping  together  of  matter, 
which  constitutes  nervous  structure. 

§  128.  In  social  evolution,  the  collecting  together  of  the 
like  and  the  separation  of  the  unlike,  by  incident  forces,  is 
primarily  displayed  in  the  same  manner  as  we  saw  it  to  be 


SEGREGATION.  489 

among  groups  of  inferior  creatures.  The  human  races  tend 
to  differentiate  and  integrate,  as  do  races  of  other  living 
forms.  Of  the  forces  which  effect  and  maintain  the 

segregations  of  mankind,  may  first  be  named  those  external 
ones  which  we  class  as  physical  conditions.  The  climate  and 
food  that  are  favourable  to  an  indigenous  people,  are  more 
or  less  detrimental  to  a  people  of  different  bodily  constitu- 
tion, coming  from  a  remote  part  of  the  Earth.  In  tropical 
regions  the  northern  races  cannot  permanently  exist:  if  not 
killed  off  in  the  first  generation,  they  are  so  in  the  second; 
and,  as  in  India,  can  maintain  their  footing  only  by  the 
artificial  process  of  continuous  immigration  and  emigration. 
That  is  to  say,  the  external  forces  acting  equally  on  the  in- 
habitants of  a  given  locality,  tend  to  expel  all  who  are  not 
of  a  certain  type ;  and  so  to  keep  up  the  integration  of  those 
who  are  of  that  type.  Though  elsewhere,  as  among  Euro- 
pean nations,  we  see  a  certain  amount  of  permanent  inter- 
mixture, otherwise  brought  about,  we  still  see  that  this  takes 
place  between  races  of  not  very  different  types,  that  are 
naturalized  to  not  very  different  conditions.  The 

other  forces  conspiring  to  produce  these  national  segrega- 
tions, are  those  mental  ones  which  show  themselves  in  the 
affinities  of  men  for  others  like  themselves.  Emigrants 
usually  desire  to  get  back  among  their  own  people;  and 
where  their  desire  does  not  take  effect,  it  is  only  because  the 
restraining  ties  are  too  great.  Units  of  one  society  who 
are  obliged  to  reside  in  another,  very  generally  form  colo- 
nies in  the  midst  of  that  other — small  societies  of  their 
own.  Races  which  have  been  artificially  severed,  show 
strong  tendencies  to  re-unite.  Now  though  these  segrega- 
tions  that  result  from  the  mutual  affinities  of  kindred  men, 
do  not  seem  interpretable  as  illustrations  of  the  general 
principle  above  enunciated,  they  really  are  thus  interpret- 
able. When  treating  of  the  direction  of  motion  (§  80), 
it  was  shown  that  the  actions  performed  by  men  for  the 
satisfaction  of  their  wants,  were  alwavs  motions  along  lines 
33 


490  SEGREGATION. 

of  least  resistance.  The  feelings  characterizing  a  member 
of  a  given  race,  are  feelings  which  get  complete  satisfaction 
only  among  other  members  of  that  race — a  satisfaction 
partly  derived  from  sympathy  with  those  having  like  feel- 
ings, but  mainly  derived  from  the  adapted  social  conditions 
which  grow  up  where  such  feelings  prevail.  When,  there- 
fore, a  citizen  of  any  nation  is,  as  we  see,  attracted  towards 
others  of  his  nation,  the  rationale  is,  that  certain  agencies 
which  we  call  desires,  move  him  in  the  direction  of  least 
resistance.  Human  motions,  like  all  other  motions,  being 
determined  by  the  distribution  of  forces,  it  follows  that 
such  segregations  of  races  as  are  not  produced  by  incident 
external  forces,  are  produced  by  forces  which  the  units  of 
the  races  exercise  on  each  other. 

.  During  the  development  of  each  society,  we  see  analo- 
gous segregations  caused  in  analogous  ways.  A  few  of  them 
result  from  minor  natural  affinities;  but  those  most  impor- 
tant ones  which  constitute  political  and  industrial  organiza- 
tion, result  from  the  union  of  men  in  whom  similarities  have 
been  produced  by  education — using  education  in  its  widest 
sense,  as  comprehending  all  processes  by  which  citizens  are 
moulded  to  special  functions.  Men  brought  up  to  bodily 
labour,  are  men  who  have  had  wrought  in  them  a  certain 
likeness — a  likeness  which,  in  respect  of  their  powers  of  ac- 
tion, obscures  and  subordinates  their  natural  differences. 
Those  trained  to  brain-work,  have  acquired  a  certain  other 
community  of  character  which  makes  them,  as  social  units, 
more  like  each  other  than  like  those  trained  to  manual  occu- 
pations. And  there  arise  class-segregations  answering  to 
these  superinduced  likenesses.  Much  more  definite  segrega- 
tions take  place  among  the  much  more  definitely  assimi- 
lated members  of  any  class  who  are  brought  up  to  the  same 
calling.  Even  where  the  necessities  of  their  work  forbid 
concentration  in  one  locality,  as  among  artizans  happens 
with  masons  and  bricklayers,  and  among  traders  happens 
with  the  retail  distributors,  and  among  professionals  happens 


SEGREGATION.  491 

with  the  medical  men;  there  are  not  wanting  Operative 
Builders  Unions,  and  Grocers  Societies,  and  Medical  Asso- 
ciations, to  show  that  these  artificially-assimilated  citizens 
become  integrated  as  much  as  the  conditions  permit.  And 
where,  as  among  the  manufacturing  classes,  the  functions 
discharged  do  not  require  the  dispersion  of  the  citizens  thus 
artificially  assimilated,  there  is  a  progressive  aggregation  of 
them  in  special  localities;  and  a  consequent  increase  in  the 
definiteness  of  the  industrial  divisions.  If  now  we 

seek  the  causes  of  these  segregations,  considered  as  results 
of  force  and  motion,  we  find  ourselves  brought  to  the  same 
general  principle  as  before.  This  likeness  generated  in  any 
class  or  sub-class  by  training,  is  an  aptitude  acquired  by  its 
members  for  satisfying  their  wants  in  like  ways.  That  is,  the 
occupation  to  which  each  man  has  been  brought  up,  has  be- 
come to  him,  in  common  with  those  similarly  brought  up,  a 
line  of  least  resistance.  Hence  under  that  pressure  which 
determines  all  men  to  activity,  these  similarly-modified 
social  units  are  similarly  affected,  and  tend  to  take  similar 
courses.  If  then  there  be  any  locality  which,  either  by  its 
physical  peculiarities  or  by  peculiarities  wrought  on  it 
during  social  evolution,  is  rendered  a  place  where  a  certain 
kind  of  industrial  action  meets  with  less  resistance  than  else- 
where; it  follows  from  the  law  of  direction  of  motion  that 
those  social  units  who  have  been  moulded  to  this  kind  of 
industrial  action,  will  move  towards  this  place,  or  become 
integrated  there.  If,  for  instance,  the  proximity  of  coal  and 
iron  mines  to  a  navigable  river,  gives  to  Glasgow  a  certain 
advantage  in  the  building  of  iron  ships — if  the  total  labour 
required  to  produce  the  same  vessel,  and  get  its  equivalent 
in  food  and  clothing,  is  less  there  than  eleswhere;  a  con- 
centration of  iron-ship  builders  is  produced  at  Glasgow: 
either  by  keeping  there  the  population  born  to  iron-ship 
building;  or  by  immigration  of  those  elsewhere  engaged  in 
it;  or  by  both — a  concentration  that  would  be  still  more 
marked  did  not  other  districts  offer  counter-balancing  facili- 


492  SEGREGATION. 

ties.  The  principle  equally  holds  where  the  occupation  is 
mercantile  instead  of  manufacturing.  Stock-brokers  cluster 
together  in  the  city,  because  the  amount  of  effort  to  be 
severally  gone  through  by  them  in  discharging  their  func- 
tions, and  obtaining  their  profits,  is  less  there  than  in  other 
localities.  A  place  of  exchange  having  once  been  estab- 
lished, becomes  a  place  where  the  resistance  to  be  overcome 
by  each  is  less  than  eleswhere ;  and  the  pursuit  of  the  course 
of  least  resistance  by  each,  involves  their  aggregation  around 
this  place. 

Of  course,  with  units  so  complicated  as  those  which  con- 
stitute a  society,  and  with  forces  so  involved  as  those  which 
move  them,  the  resulting  selections  and  separations  must 
be  far  more  entangled,  or  far  less  definite,  than  those  we 
have  hitherto  considered.  But  though  there  may  be  pointed 
out  many  anomalies  which  at  first  sight  seem  inconsistent 
with  the  alleged  law,  a  closer  study  shows  that  they  are  but 
subtler  illustrations  of  it.  For  men's  likenesses  being  of 
various  kinds,  lead  to  various  orders  of  segregation.  There 
are  likenesses  of  disposition,  likenesses  of  taste,  likenesses 
produced  by  intellectual  culture,  likenesses  that  result  from 
class-training,  likenesses  of  political  feeling;  and  it  needs 
but  to  glance  round  at  the  caste-divisions,  the  associations 
for  philanthropic,  scientific,  and  artistic  purposes,  the  re- 
ligious parties  and  social  cliques;  to  see  that  some  species  of 
likeness  among  the  component  members  of  each  body 
determines  their  union.  Xow  the  different  segregative  pro- 
cesses by  traversing  one  another,  and  often  by  their  indirect 
antagonism,  more  or  less  obscure  one  another's  effects;  and 
prevent  any  one  differentiated  class  from  completely  inte- 
grating. Hence  the  anomalies  referred  to.  But  if  this 
cause  of  incompleteness  be  duly  borne  in  mind,  social  segre- 
gations will  be  seen  to  conform  entirely  to  the  same  principle 
as  all  other  segregations.  Analysis  will  show  that  either  by 
external  incident  forces,  or  by  what  we  may  in  a  sense 
regard  as  mutual  polarity,  there  are  ever  being  produced  in 


SEGREGATION.  493 

society  segregations  of  those  units  which  have  either  a 
natural  likeness  or  a  likeness  generated  by  training. 

§  169.  Can  the  general  truth  thus  variously  illustrated 
be  deduced  from  the  persistence  of  force,  in  common  with 
foregoing  ones?  Probably  the  exposition  at  the  beginning 
of  the  chapter  will  have  led  most  readers  to  conclude  that  it 
can  be  so  deduced. 

The  abstract  propositions  involved  are  these: — First, 
that  like  units,  subject  to  a  uniform  force  capable  of  produc- 
ing motion  in  them,  will  be  moved  to  like  degrees  in  the  same 
direction.  Second,  that  like  units  if  exposed  to  unlike  forces 
capable  of  producing  motion  in  them,  will  be  differently 
moved — moved  either  in  different  directions  or  to  different 
degrees  in  the  same  direction.  Third,  that  unlike  units  if 
acted  on  by  a  uniform  force  capable  of  producing  motion  in 
them,  will  be  differently  moved — moved  either  in  different 
directions  or  to  different  degrees  in  the  same  direction. 
Fourth,  that  the  incident  forces  themselves  must  be  affected 
in  analogous  ways:  like  forces  falling  on  like  units  must  be 
similarly  modified  by  the  conflict;  unlike  forces  falling  on 
like  units  must  be  dissimilarly  modified ;  and  like  forces  fall- 
ing on  unlike  units  must  be  dissimilarly  modified.  These 
propositions  admit  of  reduction  to  a  still  more  abstract  form. 
They  all  of  them  amount  to  this: — that  in  the  actions  and 
reactions  of  force  and  matter,  an  imlikeness  in  either  of 
the  factors  necessitates  an  imlikeness  in  the  effects ;  and  that 
in  the  absence  of  imlikeness  in  either  of  the  factors  the 
effects  must  be  alike. 

When  thus  generalized,  the  immediate  dependence  of 
these  propositions  on  the  persistence  of  force,  becomes  obvi- 
ous. Any  two  forces  that  are  not  alike,  are  forces  which  dif- 
fer either  in  their  amounts  or  directions  or  both;  and  by  what 
mathematicians  call  the  resolution  of  forces,  it  may  be 
proved  that  this  difference  is  constituted  by  the  presence  in 
the  one  of  some  force  not  present  in  the  other.     Similarly, 


49±  SEGREGATION. 

any  two  units  or  portions  of  matter  which  are  unlike  in  size, 
weight,  form,  or  other  attribute,  can  be  known  by  us  as  un- 
like only  through  some  unlikeness  in  the  forces  they  impress 
on  our  consciousness;  and  hence  this  unlikeness  also,  is 
constituted  by  the  presence  in  the  one  of  some  force  or  forces 
not  present  in  the  other.  Such  being  the  common  nature  of 
these  unlikenesses,  what  is  the  inevitable  corollary?  Any 
unlikeness  in  the  incident  forces,  where  the  things  acted  on 
are  alike,  must  generate  a  difference  between  the  effects; 
since  otherwise,  the  differential  force  produces  no  effect,  and 
force  is  not  persistent.  Any  unlikeness  in  the  things  acted 
on,  where  the  incident  forces  are  alike,  must  generate  a  dif- 
ference between  the  effects;  since  otherwise,  the  differential 
force  whereby  these  things  are  made  unlike,  produces  no  ef- 
fect, and  force  is  not  persistent.  While,  conversely,  if  the 
forces  acting  and  the  things  acted  on,  are  alike,  the  effects 
must  be  alike;  since  otherwise,  a  differential  effect  can  be 
produced  without  a  differential  cause,  and  force  is  not  per- 
sistent. 

Thus  these  general  truths  being  necessary  implications 
of  the  persistence  of  force,  all  the  re-distributions  above 
traced  out  as  characterizing  Evolution  in  its  various  phases, 
are  also  implications  of  the  persistence  of  force.  Such  por- 
tions of  the  permanently  effective  forces  acting  on  any  ag- 
gregate, as  produce  sensible  motions  in  its  parts,  cannot  but 
work  the  segregations  which  we  see  take  place.  If  of  the 
mixed  units  making  up  such  aggregate,  those  of  the  same 
kind  have  like  motions  impressed  on  them  by  a  uniform 
force,  while  units  of  another  kind  are  moved  by  this  uniform 
force  in  ways  more  or  less  unlike  the  ways  in  which  those 
of  the  first  kind  are  moved,  the  two  kinds  must  separate  and 
integrate.  If  the  units  are  alike  and  the  forces  unlike,  a 
division  of  the  differently  affected  units  is  equally  necessi- 
tated. Thus  there  inevitably  arises  the  demarcated  group- 
ing which  we  everywhere  see.  By  virtue  of  this  segregation 
that  grows  ever  more  decided  while  there  remains  any  possi- 


SEGREGATION.  495 

bility  of  increasing  it,  the  change  from  uniformity  to  multi- 
formity is  accompanied  by  a  change  from  indistinctness  in 
the  relations  of  parts  to  distinctness  in  the  relations  of  parts. 
As  we  before  saw  that  the  transformation  of  the  homegene- 
ous  into  the  heterogeneous  is  inferable  from  that  ultimate 
truth  which  transcends  proof;  so  we  here  see,  that  from  this 
same  truth  is  inferable  the  transformation  of  an  indefinite 
homogeneity  into  a  definite  heterogeneity. 


CHAPTEE  XXII. 

EQUILIBRATION. 

§  170.  And  now  towards  what  do  these  changes  tend? 
Will  they  go  on  for  ever?  or  will  there  be  an  end  to  them? 
Can  things  increase  in  heterogeneity  through  all  future 
time?  or  must  there  be  a  degree  which  the  differentiation 
and  integration  of  Matter  and  Motion  cannot  pass?  Is  it 
possible  for  this  universal  metamorphosis  to  proceed  in  the 
same  general  course  indefinitely?  or  does  it  work  towards 
some  ultimate  state,  admitting  no  further  modification  of 
like  kind?  The  last  of  these  alternative  conclusions  is  that 
to  which  we  are  inevitably  driven.  Whether  we  watch 
concrete  processes,  or  whether  we  consider  the  question  in 
the  abstract,  we  are  alike  taught  that  Evolution  has  an  im- 
passable limit. 

The  re-distributions,  of  matter  that  go  on  around  us,  are 

ever  being  brought  to  conclusions  by  the  dissipation  of  the 

motions  which  effect  them.     The  rolling  stone  parts  with 

portions  of  its  momentum  to  the  things  it  strikes,  and  finally 

comes  to  rest;  as  do  also,  in  like  manner,  the  various  things 

it  has  struck.     Descending  from  the  clouds  and  trickling 

over  the  Earth's  surface  till  it  gathers  into  brooks  and  rivers, 

water,  still  running  towards  a  lower  level,  is  at  last  arrested 

by  the  resistance  of  other  water  that  has  reached  the  lowest 

level.    In  the  lake  or  sea  thus  formed,  every  agitation  raised 

by  a  wind  or  the  immersion  of  a  solid  body,  propagates  itself 

around  in  waves  that  diminish  as  thev  widen,  and  gradually 

496 


EQUILIBRATION.  497 

"become  lost  to  observation  in  motions  communicated  to  the 
atmosphere  and  the  matter  on  the  shores.  The  impulse 
given  by  a  player  to  the  harp-string,  is  transformed  through 
its  vibrations  into  aerial  pulses;  and  these,  spreading  on  all 
sides,  and  weakening  as  they  spread,  soon  cease  to  be  per- 
ceptible ;  and  finally  die  away  in  generating  thermal  undula- 
tions that  radiate  into  space.  Equally  in  the  cinder  that 
falls  out  of  the  fire,  and  in  the  vast  masses  of  molten  lava 
ejected  by  a  volcano,  we  see  that  the  molecular  agitation 
known  to  us  as  heat,  disperses  itself  by  radiation;  so  that  how- 
ever great  its  amount,  it  inevitably  sinks  at  last  to  the  same 
degree  as  that  existing  in  surrounding  bodies.  And  if  the 
actions  observed  be  electrical  or  chemical,  we  still  find  that 
they  work  themselves  out  in  producing  sensible  or  insensible 
movements,  that  are  dissipated  as  before ;  until  quiescence  is 
eventually  reached.  The  proximate  rationale  of 

the  process  exhibited  under  these  several  forms,  lies  in  the 
fact  dwelt  on  when  treating  of  the  Multiplication  of  Effects, 
that  motions  are  ever  being  decomposed  into  divergent  mo- 
tions, and  these  into  re-divergent  motions.  The  rolling  stone 
sends  off  the  stones  it  hits  in  directions  differing  more  or  less 
from  its  own ;  and  they  do  the  like  with  the  things  they  hit. 
Move  water  or  air,  and  the  movement  is  quickly  resolved  into 
radiating  movements.  The  heat  produced  by  pressure  in  a 
given  direction,  diffuses  itself  by  undulations  in  all  direc- 
tions; and  so  do  the  light  and  electricity  similarly  generated. 
That  is  to  say,  these  motions  undergo  division  and  subdivi- 
sion ;  and  by  continuance  of  this  process  without  limit,  they 
are,  though  never  lost,  gradually  reduced  to  insensible  mo- 
tions. 

In  all  cases  then,  there  is  a  progress  toward  equilibra- 
tion. That  universal  co-existence  of  antagonist  forces 
which,  as  we  before  saw,  necessitates  the  universality  of 
rhythm,  and  which,  as  we  before  saw,  necessitates  the  de- 
composition of  every  force  into  divergent  forces,  at  the  same 
time  necessitates  the  ultimate  establishment  of  a  balance. 


498  EQUILIBRATION. 

Every  motion  being  motion  under  resistance,  is  continually 
suffering  deductions;  and  these  unceasing  deductions  finally 
result  in  the  cessation  of  the  motion. 

The  general  truth  thus  illustrated  under  its  simplest 
aspect,  we  must  now  look  at  under  those  more  complex 
aspects  it  usually  presents  throughout  Nature.  In  nearly  all 
cases,  the  motion  of  an  aggregate  is  compound;  and  the 
equilibration  of  each  of  its  components,  being  carried  on  in- 
dependently, does  not  affect  the  rest.  The  ship's  bell  that 
has  ceased  to  vibrate,  still  continues  those  vertical  and  lateral 
oscillations  caused  by  the  ocean-swell.  The  water  of  the 
smooth  stream  on  whose  surface  have  died  away  the  undu- 
lations caused  by  the  rising  fish,  moves  as  fast  as  before 
onward  to  the  sea.  The  arrested  bullet  travels  with  un- 
diminished speed  round  the  Earth's  axis.  And  were  the 
rotation  of  the  Earth  destroyed,  there  would  not  be  implied 
any  diminution  of  the  Earth's  movement  with  respect  to  the 
Sun  and  other  external  bodies.  So  that  in  every  case,  what 
we  regard  as  equilibration  is  a  disappearance  of  some  one  or 
more  of  the  many  movements  which  a  body  possesses,  while 
its  other  movements  continue  as  before.  That  this 

process  may  be  duly  realized  and  the  state  of  things  towards 
which  it  tends  fully  understood,  it  will  be  well  here  to  cite  a 
case  in  which  we  may  watch  this  successive  equilibration  of 
combined  movements  more  completely  than  we  can  do  in 
those  above  instanced.  Our  end  will  best  be  served,  not  by 
the  most  imposing,  but  by  the  most  familiar  example.  Let 
us  take  that  of  the  spinning  top.  When  the  string  which 
has  been  wrapped  round  a  top's  axis  is  violently  drawn  off, 
and  the  top  falls  on  to  the  table,  it  usually  happens  that  be- 
sides the  rapid  rotation,  two  other  movements  are  given  to  it. 
A  slight  horizontal  momentum,  unavoidably  impressed  on 
it  when  leaving  the  handle,  carries  it  away  bodily  from  the 
place  on  which  it  drops;  and  in  consequence  of  its  axis  being 
more  or  lees  inclined,  it  falls  into  a  certain  oscillation, 
described    by    the    expressive    though    inelegant    word — 


EQUILIBRATION.  499 

"  wabbling."  These  two  subordinate  motions,  variable  in 
their  proportions  to  each  other  and  to  the  chief  motion,  are 
commonly  soon  brought  to  a  close  by  separate  processes  of 
equilibration.  The  momentum  which  carries  the  top  bodily 
along  the  table,  resisted  somewhat  by  the  air,  but  mainly  by 
the  irregularities  of  the  surface,  shortly  disappears;  and  the 
top  thereafter  continues  to  spin  on  one  spot.  Meanwhile,  in 
consequence  of  that  opposition  which  the  axial  momentum 
of  a  rotating  body  makes  to  any  change  in  the  plane  of  rota- 
tion, (so  beautifully  exhibited  by  the  gyroscope,)  the  "  wab- 
bling "  diminishes;  and  like  the  other  is  quickly  ended. 
These  minor  motions  having  been  dissipated,  the  rotatory 
motion,  interfered  with  only  by  atmospheric  resistance  and 
the  friction  of  the  pivot,  continues  some  time  with  such  uni- 
formity that  the  top  appears  stationary:  there  being  thus 
temporarily  established  a  condition  which  the  French 
mathematicians  have  termed  equilibrium  mobile.  It  is  true 
that  when  the  axial  velocity  sinks  below  a  certain  point, 
new  motions  commence,  and  increase  till  the  top  falls;  but 
these  are  merely  incidental  to  a  case  in  which  the  centre  of 
gravity  is  above  the  point  of  support.  Were  the  top,  having 
an  axis  of  steel,  to  be  suspended  from  a  surface  adequately 
magnetized,  all  the  phenomena  described  would  be  dis- 
played, and  the  moving  equilibrium  having  been  once  ar- 
rived at,  would  continue  until  the  top  became  motionless, 
without  any  further  change  of  position.  iSTow  the 

facts  which  it  behoves  us  here  to  observe,  are  these.  First, 
that  the  various  motions  which  an  aggregate  possesses  are 
separately  equilibrated :  those  which  are  smallest,  or  which 
meet  with  the  greatest  resistance,  or  both,  disappearing  first; 
and  leaving  at  last,  that  which  is  greatest,  or  meets  with  least 
resistance,  or  both.  Second,  that  when  the  aggregate  has  a 
movement  of  its  parts  with  respect  to  each  other,  which  en- 
counters but  little  external  resistance,  there  is  apt  to  be  es- 
tablished an  equilibrium  mobile.  Third,  that  this  moving 
equilibrium  eventually  lapses  into  complete  equilibrium. 


500  EQUILIBRATION. 

Fully  to  comprehend  the  process  of  equilibration,  is  not 
easy;  since  we  have  simultaneously  to  contemplate  various 
phases  of  it.  The  best  course  will  be  to  glance  separately  at 
what  we  may  conveniently  regard  as  its  four  different 
orders.  The  first  order  includes  the  comparatively 

simple  motions,  as  those  of  projectiles,  which  are  not  pro- 
longed enough  to  exhibit  their  rhythmical  character;  but 
which,  being  quickly  divided  and  subdivided  into  motions 
communicated  to  other  portions  of  matter,  are  presently  dis- 
sipated in  the  rhythm  of  ethereal  undulations.  In 
the  second  order,  comprehending  the  various  kinds  of  vi- 
bration or  oscillation  as  usually  witnessed,  the  motion  is  used 
up  in  generating  a  tension  which,  having  become  equal  to  it 
or  momentarily  equilibrated  with  it,  thereupon  produces  a 
motion  in  the  opposite  direction,  that  is  subsequently  equili- 
brated in  like  manner:  thus  causing  a  visible  rhythm,  that 
is,  however,  soon  lost  in  invisible  rhythms.  The  third 
order  of  equilibration,  not  hitherto  noticed,  obtains  in  those 
aggregates  which  continually  receive  as  much  motion  as 
they  expend.  The  steam  engine  (and  especially  that  kind 
which  feeds  its  own  furnace  and  boiler)  supplies  an  example. 
Here  the  force  from  moment  to  moment  dissipated  in  over- 
coming the  resistance  of  the  machinery  driven,  is  from  mo- 
ment to  moment  re-placed  from  the  fuel ;  and  the  balance  of 
the  tv\To  is  maintained  by  a  raising  or  lowering  of  the  ex- 
penditure according  to  the  variation  of  the  supply :  each  in- 
crease or  decrease  in  the  quantity  of  steam,  resulting  in  a  rise 
or  fall  of  the  engine's  movement,  such  as  brings  it  to  a  bal- 
ance with  the  increased  or  decreased  resistance.  This,  which 
we  may  fitly  call  the  dependent  moving  equilibrium,  should 
be  specially  noted;  since  it  is  one  that  we  shall  commonly 
meet  with  throughout  various  phases  of  Evolution.  The 
equilibration  to  be  distinguished  as  of  the  fourth  order,  is  the 
independent  or  perfect  moving  equilibrium.  This  we  see 
illustrated  in  the  rhythmical  motions  of  the  Solar  System: 
which,  being  resisted  only  by  a  medium  of  inappreciable 


EQUILIBRATION.  501 

density,  undergo  no  sensible  diminution  in  such  periods  of 
time  as  we  can  measure. 

All  these  kinds  of  equilibration  may,  however,  from  the 
highest  point  of  view,  be  regarded  as  different  modes  of  one 
kind.  For  in  every  case  the  balance  arrived  at  is  relative, 
and  not  absolute — is  a  cessation  of  the  motion  of  some  par- 
ticular body  in  relation  to  a  certain  point  or  points,  in- 
volving neither  the  disappearance  of  the  relative  motion  lost, 
which  is  simply  transformed  into  other  motions,  nor  a  dimi- 
nution of  the  body's  motions  with  respect  to  other  points. 
Thus  understanding  equilibration,  it  manifestly  includes 
that  equilibrium  mobile,  which  at  first  sight  seems  of  an- 
other nature.  For  any  system  of  bodies  exhibiting,  like 
those  of  the  Solar  System,  a  combination  of  balanced 
rhythms,  has  this  peculiarity: — that  though  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  system  have  relative  movements,  the  system  as  a 
whole  has  no  movement.  The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  entire 
group  remains  fixed.  Whatever  quantity  of  motion  any 
member  of  it  has  in  any  direction,  is  from  moment  to  mo- 
ment counter-balanced  by  an  equivalent  motion  in  some 
other  part  of  the  group  in  an  opposite  direction ;  and  so  the 
aggregate  matter  of  the  group  is  in  a  state  of  rest.  Whence 
it  follows  that  the  arrival  at  a  state  of  moving  equilibrium, 
is  the  disappearance  of  some  movement  which  the  aggre- 
gate had  in  relation  to  external  things,  and  a  continuance 
of  those  movements  only  which  the  different  parts  of  the 
aggregate  have  in  relation  to  each  other.  Thus  generaliz- 
ing the  process,  it  becomes  clear  that  all  forms  of  equilibra- 
tion are  intrinsically  the  same;  since  in  every  aggregate, 
it  is  the  centre  of  gravity  only  that  loses  its  motion:  the 
constituents  always  retaining  some  motion  with  respect  to 
each  other — the  motion  of  molecules  if  none  else.  Every 
equilibrium  commonly  regarded  as  absolute,  is  in  one  sense 
a  moving  equilibrium;  because  along  with  a  motionless 
state  of  the  whole  there  is  always  some  relative  movement 
of  its  insensible  parts.      And,   conversely,   every  moving 


502  EQUILIBRATION. 

equilibrium  may  be  in  one  sense  regarded  as  absolute;  be- 
cause the  relative  movements  of  its  sensible  parts  are  accom- 
panied by  a  motionless  state  of  the  whole. 

Something  has  still  to  be  added  before  closing  these 
somewhat  too  elaborate  preliminaries.  The  reader  must 
now  especially  note  two  leading  truths  brought  out  by  the 
foregoing  exposition:  the  one  concerning  the  ultimate,  or 
rather  the  penultimate,  state  of  motion  which,  the  processes 
described  tend  to  bring  about ;  the  other  concerning  the  con- 
comitant distribution  of  matter.  This  penultimate 
state  of  motion  is  the  moving  equilibrium;  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  tends  to  arise  in  an  aggregate  having  compound  mo- 
tions, as  a  transitional  state  on  the  way  towards  complete 
equilibrium.  Throughout  Evolution  of  all  kinds,  there  is  a 
continual  approximation  to,  and  more  or  less  complete  main- 
tenance of,  this  moving  equilibrium.  As  in  the  Solar  Sys- 
tem there  has  been  established  an  independent  moving 
equilibrium — an  equilibrium  such  that  the  relative  motions 
of  the  constituent  parts  are  continually  so  counter-balanced 
by  opposite  motions,  that  the  mean  state  of  the  whole  aggre- 
gate never  varies;  so  is  it,  though  in  a  less  distinct  manner, 
with  each  form  of  dependent  moving  equilibrium.  The 
state  of  things  exhibited  in  the  cycles  of  terrestrial  changes, 
in  the  balanced  functions  of  organic  bodies  that  have 
reached  their  adult  forms,  and  in  the  acting  and  re-acting 
processes  of  fully-developed  societies,  is  similarly  one  char- 
acterized by  compensating  oscillations.  The  involved  com- 
bination of  rhythms  seen  in  each  of  these  cases,  has  an 
average  condition  which  remains  practically  constant  during 
the  deviations  ever  taking  place  on  opposite  sides  of  it.  And 
the  fact  which  we  have  here  particularly  to  observe,  is,  that 
as  a  corollary  from  a  general  law  of  equilibration  above  set 
forth,  the  evolution  of  every  aggregate  must  go  on  until  this 
equilibrium  mobile  is  established;  since,  as  we  have  seen, 
an  excess  of  force  which  the  aggregate  possesses  in  any  direc- 
tion, must  eventually  be  expended  in  overcoming  resist- 


EQUILIBRATION.  503 

ances  to  change  in  that  direction :  leaving  behind  only  those 
movements  which  compensate  each  other,  and  so  form  a 
moving    equilibrium.  Kespecting    the    structural 

state  simultaneously  reached,  it  must  obviously  be  one  pre- 
senting an  arrangement  of  forces  that  counterbalance  all 
the  forces  to  which  the  aggregate  is  subject.  So  long  as 
there  remains  a  residual  force  in  any  direction — be  it  excess 
of  a  force  exercised  by  the  aggregate  on  its  environment,  or 
of  a  force  exercised  by  its  environment  on  the  aggregate, 
equilibrium  does  not  exist ;  and  therefore  the  re-distribution 
of  matter  must  continue.  Whence  it  follows  that  the  limit 
of  heterogeneity  towards  which  every  aggregate  progresses, 
is  the  formation  of  as  many  specializations  and  combina- 
tions of  parts,  as  there  are  specialized  and  combined  forces 
to  be  met. 

§  171.  Those  successively  changed  forms  which,  if  the 
nebular  hypothesis  be  granted,  must  have  arisen  during 
the  evolution  of  the  Solar  System,  were  so  many  transitional 
kinds  of  moving  equilibrium ;  severally  giving  place  to  more 
permanent  kinds  on  the  way  towards  complete  equilibration. 
Thus  the  assumption  of  an  oblate  spheroidal  figure  by  con- 
densing nebulous  matter,  was  the  assumption  of  a  temporary 
and  partial  moving  equilibrium  among  the  component  parts 
— a  moving  equilibrium  that  must  have  slowly  grown 
more  settled,  as  local  conflicting  movements  were  dis- 
sipated. In  the  formation  and  detachment  of  the 
nebulous  rings,  which,  according  to  this  hypothesis,  from 
time  to  time  took  place,  we  have  instances  of  progressive 
equilibration  ending  in  the  establishment  of  a  complete  mov- 
ing equilibrium.  For  the  genesis  of  each  such  ring,  implies 
a  perfect  balancing  of  that  aggregative  force  which  the 
whole  spheroid  exercises  on  its  equatorial  portion,  by  that 
centrifugal  force  which  the  equatorial  portion  has  acquired 
during  previous  concentration:  so  long  as  these  two  forces 
are  not  equal,  the  equatorial  portion  follows  the  contracting 


504  EQUILIBRATION. 

mass ;  but  as  soon  as  the  second  force  has  increased  up  to  art 
equality  with  the  first,  the  equatorial  portion  can  follow  no 
further,  and  remains  behind.  While,  however,  the  resulting 
ring,  regarded  as  a  whole  connected  by  forces  with  external 
wholes,  has  reached  a  state  of  moving  equilibrium;  its  parts 
are  not  balanced  with  respect  to  each  other.  As  we  be- 
fore saw  (§  150)  the  probabilities  against  the  maintenance 
of  an  annular  form  by  nebulous  matter,  are  immense :  from 
the  instability  of  the  homogeneous,  it  is  inferrable  that  nebu- 
lous matter  so  distributed  must  break  up  into  portions; 
and  eventually  concentrate  into  a  single  mass.  That  is  to 
say,  the  ring  must  progress  towards  a  moving  equilibrium 
of  a  more  complete  kind,  during  the  dissipation  of  that 
motion  which  maintained  its  particles  in  a  diffused  form: 
leaving  at  length  a  planetary  body,  attended  perhaps  by  a 
group  of  minor  bodies,  severally  having  residuary  relative 
motions  that  are  no  longer  resisted  by  sensible  media;  and 
there  is  thus  constituted  an  equilibrium  mobile  that  is  all  but 
absolutely  perfect.* 

Hypothesis  aside,  the  principle  of  equilibration  is  still 
perpetually  illustrated  in  those  minor  changes  of  state  which 

*  Sir  David  Brewster  has  recently  been  citing  with  approval,  a  calculation 
by  M.  Babinet,  to  the  effect  that  on  the  hypothesis  of  nebular  genesis,  the 
matter  of  the  Sun,  when  it  filled  the  Earth's  orbit,  must  have  taken  3181  years 
to  rotate  ;  and  that  therefore  the  hypothesis  cannot  be  true.  This  calculation 
of  Iff.  Babinet  may  pair-off  with  that  of  M.  Comte,  who,  contrariwise,  made 
the  time  of  this  rotation  agree  very  nearly  with  the  Earth's  period  of  revolu- 
tion round  the  Sun  ;  for  if  M.  Comte's  calculation  involved  a  petitio  principn, 
that  of  M.  Babinet  is  manifestly  based  on  two  assumptions,  both  of  which  are 
gratuitous,  and  one  of  them  totally  inconsistent  with  the  doctrine  to  be  tested. 
He  has  evidently  proceeded  on  the  current  supposition  respecting  the  Sun's 
internal  density,  which  is  not  proved,  and  from  which  there  are  reasons  for 
dissenting ;  and  he  has  evidently  taken  for  granted  that  all  parts  of  the  neb- 
ulous spheroid,  when  it  filled  the  Earth's  orbit,  had  the  same  angular  velocity ; 
whereas  if  (as  is  implied  in  the  nebular  hypothesis,  rationally  understood)  this 
spheroid  resulted  from  the  concentration  of  far  more  widely-diffused  matter, 
the  angular  velocity  of  its  equatorial  portion  would  obviously  be  immensely 
greater  than  that  of  its  central  portion. 


EQUILIBRATION.  505 

the  Solar  System  is  undergoing.  Each  planet,  satellite, 
and  comet,  exhibits  to  us  at  its  aphelion  a  momentary  equi- 
librium between  that  force  which  urges  it  further  away  from 
its  primary,  and  that  force  which  retards  its  retreat;  since 
the  retreat  goes  on  until  the  last  of  these  forces  exactly 
counterpoises  the  first.  In  like  manner  at  perihelion  a  con- 
verse equilibrium  is  momentarily  established.  The  varia- 
tion of  each  orbit  in  size,  in  eccentricity,  and  in  the  position 
of  its  plane,  has  similarly  a  limit  at  which  the  forces  pro- 
ducing change-  in  the  one  direction,  are  equalled  by  those 
antagonizing  it;  and  an  opposite  limit  at  which  an  opposite 
arrest  takes  place.  Meanwhile,  each  of  these  simple  per- 
turbations, as  well  as  each  of  the  complex  ones  resulting  from 
their  combination,  exhibits,  besides  the  temporary  equilibra- 
tion at  each  of  its  extremes,  a  certain  general  equilibra- 
tion of  compensating  deviations  on  either  side  of  a  mean 
state.  That  the  moving  equilibrium  thus  constituted, 

tends,  in  the  course  of  indefinite  time,  to  lapse  into  a  com- 
plete equilibrium,  by  the  gradual  decrease  of  planetary  mo- 
tions and  eventual  integration  of  all  the  separate  masses  com- 
posing the  Solar  System,  is  a  belief  suggested  by  certain 
observed  cometary  retardations,  and  entertained  by  some  of 
high  authority.  The  received  opinion  that  the  appreciable 
diminution  in  the  period  of  Encke's  comet,  implies  a  loss  of 
momentum  caused  by  resistance  of  the  ethereal  medium, 
commits  astronomers  who  hold  it,  to  the  conclusion  that  this 
same  resistance  must  cause  a  loss  of  planetary  motions — a 
loss  which,  infinitesimal  though  it  may  be  in  such  periods  as 
we  can  measure,  will,  if  indefinitely  continued,  bring  these 
motions  to  a  close.  Even  should  there  be,  as  Sir  John 
Herschel  suggests,  a  rotation  of  the  ethereal  medium  in  the 
same  direction  with  the  planets,  this  arrest,  though  im- 
mensely postponed,  would  not  be  absolutely  prevented. 
Such  an  eventuality,  however,  must  in  any  case  be  so  incon- 
ceivably remote  as  to  have  no  other  than  a  speculative  inter- 
est for  us.  It  is  referred  to  here,  simply  as  illustrating  the 
34 


506  EQUILIBRATION. 

still-continued  tendency  towards  complete  equilibrium, 
through  the  still-continued  dissipation  of  sensible  motion, 
or  transformation  of  it  into  insensible  motion. 

But  there  is  another  species  of  equilibration  going  on  in 
the  Solar  System,  with  which  we  are  more  nearly  concerned 
— the  equilibration  of  that  molecular  motion  known  as  heat. 
The  tacit  assumption  hitherto  current,  that  the  Sun  can  con- 
tinue to  give  off  an  undiminished  amount  of  light  and  heat 
through  all  future  time,  is  fast  being  abandoned.  Involv- 
ing as  it  does,  under  a  disguise,  the  conception  of  power  pro- 
duced out  of  nothing,  it  is  of  the  same  order  as  the  belief 
that  misleads  perpetual-motion  schemers.  The  spreading 
recognition  of  the  truth  that  force  is  persistent,  and  that  con- 
sequently whatever  force  is  manifested  under  one  shape 
must  previously  have  existed  under  another  shape,  is  carry- 
ing with  it  a  recognition  of  the  truth  that  the  force  known 
to  us  in  solar  radiations,  is  the  changed  form  of  some  other 
force  of  which  the  Sun  is  the  seat;  and  that  by  the  gradual 
dissipation  of  these  radiations  into  space,  this  other  force  is 
being  slowly  exhausted.  The  aggregative  force  by  which 
the  Sun's  substance  is  drawn  to  his  centre  of  gravity,  is  the 
only  one  which  established  physical  laws  warrant  us  in  sus- 
pecting to  be  the  correlate  of  the  forces  thus  emanating  from 
him :  the  only  source  of  a  known  kind  that  can  be  assigned 
for  the  insensible  motions  constituting  solar  light  and  heat, 
is  the  sensible  motion  which  disappears  during  the  progress- 
ing concentration  of  the  Sun's  substance.  We  before  saw  it 
to  be  a  corollary  from  the  nebular  hypothesis,  that  there  is 
such  a  progressing  concentration  of  the  Sun's  substance. 
And  here  remains  to  be  added  the  further  corollary,  that 
just  as  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  members  of  the  Solar  Sys- 
tem, the  heat  generated  by  concentration,  long  ago  in  great 
part  radiated  into  space,  has  left  only  a  central  residue 
that  now  escapes  but  slowly;  so  in  the  case  of  that  im- 
mensely larger  mass  forming  the  Sun,  the  immensely 
greater  quantity  of  heat  generated  and  still  in  process  of 


EQUILIBRATION.  507 

rapid  diffusion,  must,  as  the  concentration  approaches  its 
limit,  diminish  in  amount,  and  eventually  leave  only  an  in- 
appreciable internal  remnant.  With  or  with- 
out the  accompaniment  of  that  hypothesis  of  nebular 
condensation,  whence,  as  we  see,  it  naturally  follows, 
the  doctrine  that  the  Sun  is  gradually  losing  his  heat, 
has  now  gained  considerable  currency;  and  calcula- 
tions have  been  made,  both  respecting  the  amount 
of  heat  and  light  already  radiated,  as  compared  with 
the  amount  that  remains,  and  respecting  the  period  during 
which  active  radiation  is  likely  to  continue.  Prof.  Helm- 
holtz  estimates,  that  since  the  time  when,  according  to  the 
nebular  hypothesis,  the  matter  composing  the  Solar  System 
extended  to  the  orbit  of  Neptune,  there  has  been  evolved 
by  the  arrest  of  sensible  motion,  an  amount  of  heat  454 
times  as  great  as  that  which  the  Sun  still  has  to  give  out. 
He  also  makes  an  approximate  estimate  of  the  rate  at  which 
this  remaining  ^f^th  is  being  diffused:  showing  that  a 
diminution  of  the  Sun's  diameter  to  the  extent  of  l0^00, 
would  produce  heat,  at  the  present  rate,  for  more  than  2000 
years;  or  in  other  words,  that  a  contraction  of  ^oyotovtjott 
of  his  diameter,  suffices  to  generate  the  amount  of  light 
and  heat  annually  emitted ;  and  that  thus,  at  the  present  rate 
of  expenditure,  the  Sun's  diameter  will  diminish  by  some- 
thing like  -^  in  the  lapse  of  the  next  million  years.*  Of 
course  these  conclusions  are  not  to  be  considered  as  more 
than  rude  approximations  to  the  truth.  Until  quite  recent- 
ly, we  have  been  totally  ignorant  of  the  Sun's  chemical 
composition;  and  even  now  have  obtained  but  a  superficial 
knowledge  of  it.  We  know  nothing  of  his  internal  struc- 
ture; and  it  is  quite  possible  (probable,  I  believe,)  that  the 
assumptions  respecting  central  density,  made  in  the  forego- 
ing estimates,  are  wrong.    But  no  uncertainty  in  the  data  on 

*  See  paper  "  On  the  Inter-action  of  Natural  Forces,"  by  Prof.  Helmholtz, 
translated  by  Prof.  Tyndall,  and  published  in  the  Philosophical  Magazine, 
supplement  to  Vol.  XI.  fourth  series. 


508  EQUILIBRATION. 

which  these  calculations  proceed,  and  no  consequent  error  in 
the  inferred  rate  at  which  the  Sun  is  expending  his  reserve 
of  force,  militates  against  the  general  proposition  that  this 
reserve  of  force  is  being  expended ;  and  must  in  time  be  ex- 
hausted. Though  the  residue  of  undiffused  motion  in  the 
Sun,  may  be  much  greater  than  is  above  concluded ;  though 
the  rate  of  radiation  cannot,  as  assumed,  continue  at  a  uni- 
form rate,  but  must  eventually  go  on  with  slowly-decreasing 
rapidity;  and  though  the  period  at  which  the  Sun  will  cease 
to  afford  us  adequate  light  and  heat,  is  very  possibly  far  more 
distant  than  above  implied;  yet  such  a  period  must  some 
time  be  reached,  and  this  is  all  which  it  here  concerns  us  to 
observe. 

Thus  while  the  Solar  System,  if  evolved  from  diffused 
matter,  has  illustrated  the  law  of  equilibration  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  complete  moving  equilibrium ;  and  while,  as  at 
present  constituted,  it  illustrates  the  law  of  equilibration  in 
the  balancing  of  all  its  movements;  it  also  illustrates  this  law 
in  the  processes  which  astronomers  and  physicists  infer  are 
still  going  on.  That  motion  of  masses  produced  during  Evo- 
lution, is  being  slowly  re-diffused  in  molecular  motion  of  the 
ethereal  medium;  both  through  the  progressive  integration 
of  each  mass,  and  the  resistance  to  its  motion  through  space. 
Infinitely  remote  as  may  be  the  state  when  all  the  motions  of 
masses  shall  be  transformed  into  molecular  motion,  and  all 
the  molecular  motion  equilibrated ;  yet  such  a  state  of  com- 
plete integration  and  complete  equilibration,  is  that  towards 
which  thp  changes  now  going  on  throughout  the  Solar  Sys- 
tem inevitably  tend. 

§  172.  A  spherical  figure  is  the  one  which  can  alone 
equilibrate  the  forces  of  mutually-gravitating  atoms.  If  the 
aggregate  of  such  atoms  has  a  rotatory  motion,  the  form  of 
equilibrium  becomes  a  spheroid  of  greater  or  less  oblateness, 
according  to  the  rate  of  rotation ;  and  it  has  been  ascertained 
that  the  Earth  is  an  oblate  spheroid,  diverging  just  as  much 


EQUILIBRATION.  509 

from  sphericity  as  is  requisite  to  counterbalance  the  centrif- 
ugal force  consequent  on  its  velocity  round  its  axis.  That  is 
to  say,  during  the  evolution  of  the  Earth,  there  has  been 
reached  a  complete  equilibrium  of  those  forces  which  affect 
its  general  outline.  The  only  other  process  of  equili- 

bration which  the  Earth  as  a  whole  can  exhibit,  is  the  loss  of 
its  axial  motion;  and  that  any  such  loss  is  going  on,  we  have 
no  direct  evidence.  It  has  been  contended,  however,  by 
Prof.  Helmholtz,  that  inappreciable  as  may  be  its  effect 
within  known  periods  of  time,  the  friction  of  the  tidal  wave 
must  be  slowly  diminishing  the  Earth's  rotatory  motion, 
and  must  eventually  destroy  it.  Xow  though  it  seems  an 
oversight  to  say  that  the  Earth's  rotation  can  thus  be  de- 
stroyed, since  the  extreme  effect,  to  be  reached  only  in  infi- 
nite time  by  such  a  process,  would  be  an  extension  of  the 
Earth's  day  to  the  length  of  a  lunation,  yet  it  seems  clear 
that  this  friction  of  the  tidal  wave  is  a  real  cause  of  decreasing 
rotation.  Slow  as  its  action  is,  we  must  recognize  it  as  ex- 
emplifying, under  another  form,  the  universal  progress  to- 
wards equilibrium. 

It  is  needless  to  point  out,  in  detail,  how  those  move- 
ments which  the  Sun's  rays  generate  in  the  air  and  water  on 
the  Earth's  surface,  and  through  them  in  the  Earth's 
solid  substance,*  one  and  all  teach  the  same  general 
truth.  Evidently  the  winds  and  waves  and  streams,  as  well 
as  the  denudations  and  depositions  they  effect,  perpetually 
illustrate  on  a  grand  scale,  and  in  endless  modes,  that  grad- 
ual dissipation  of  motions  described  in  the  first  section;  and 
the  consequent  tendency  towards  a  balanced  distribution  of 
forces.    Each  of  these  sensible  motions,  produced  directly  or 

*  Until  I  recently  consulted  his  "  Outlines  of  Astronomy  "  on  another  ques- 
tion, I  was  not  aware  that  so  far  back  as  1833,  Sir  John  Herschel  had  enunci- 
ated the  doctrine  that  "  the  sun's  rays  are  the  ultimate  source  of  almost  every 
motion  which  takes  place  on  the  surface  of  the  earth."  He  expressly  includes 
all  geologic,  meteorologic,  and  vital  actions ;  as  also  those  which  we  produce 
by  the  combustion  of  coal.  The  late  George  Stephenson  appears  to  have  been 
wrongly  credited  with  this  last*  idea. 


510  EQUILIBRATION. 

indirectly  by  integration  of  those  insensible  motions  commu- 
nicated from  the  Sun,  becomes,  as  we  have  seen,  divided  and 
subdivided  into  motions  less  and  less  sensible ;  until  it  is  final- 
ly reduced  to  insensible  motions,  and  radiated  from  the 
Earth  in  the  shape  of  thermal  undulations.  In  their 

totality,  these  complex  movements  of  aerial,  liquid,  and  solid 
matter  on  the  Earth's  crust,  constitute  a  dependent  moving 
equilibrium.  As  we  before  saw,  there  is  traceable  through- 
out them  an  involved  combination  of  rhythms.  The  unceas- 
ing circulation  of  water  from  the  ocean  to  the  land,  and  from 
the  land  back  to  the  ocean,  is  a  type  of  these  various  compen- 
sating actions;  which,  in  the  midst  of  all  the  irregularities 
produced  by  their  mutual  interferences,  maintain  an  aver- 
age. And  in  this,  as  in  other  equilibrations  of  the  third 
order,  we  see  that  the  power  from  moment  to  moment  in 
course  of  dissipation,  is  from  moment  to  moment  renewed 
from  without:  the  rises  and  falls  in  the  supply,  being  bal- 
anced by  rises  and  falls  in  the  expenditures;  as  witness  the 
correspondence  between  the  magnetic  variations  and  the 
cycle  of  the  solar  spots.  But  the  fact  it  chiefly 

concerns  us  to  observe,  is,  that  this  process  must  go  on  bring- 
ing things  ever  nearer  to  complete  rest.  These  mechanical 
movements,  meteorologic  and  geologic,  which  are  continu- 
ally being  equilibrated,  both  temporarily  by  counter-move- 
ments and  permanently  by  the  dissipation  of  such  move- 
ments and  counter-movements,  will  slowly  diminish  as  the 
quantity  of  force  received  from  the  Sun  diminishes.  As  the 
insensible  motions  propagated  to  us  from  the  centre  of  our 
system  become  feebler,  the  sensible  motions  here  produced 
by  them  must  decrease ;  and  at  that  remote  period  when  the 
solar  heat  has  ceased  to  be  appreciable,  there  will  no  longer 
be  any  appreciable  re-distributions  of  matter  on  the  surface 
of  our  planet. 

Thus  from  the  highest  point  of  view,  all  terrestrial 
changes  are  incidents  in  the  course  of  cosmical  equilibration. 
It  was  before  pointed  out,  (§69)  that  of  the  incessant  altera- 


EQUILIBRATION.  511 

tions  which  the  Earth's  crust  and  atmosphere  undergo,  those 
which  are  not  due  to  the  still-progressing  motion  of  the 
Earth's  substance  towards  its  centre  of  gravity,  are  due  to 
the  still-progressing  motion  of  the  Sun's  substance  towards 
its  centre  of  gravity.  Here  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  this 
continuance  of  integration  in  the  Earth  and  in  the  Sun,  is 
a  continuance  of  that  transformation  of  sensible  motion  into 
insensible  motion  which  we  have  seen  ends  in  equilibration ; 
and  that  the  arrival  in  each  case  at  the  extreme  of  integra- 
tion, is  the  arrival  at  a  state  in  which  no  more  sensible  mo- 
tion remains  to  be  transformed  into  insensible  motion — a 
state  in  which  the  forces  producing  integration  and  the 
forces  opposing  integration,  have  become  equal. 

§  173.  Every  living  body  exhibits,  in  a  four-fold  form, 
the  process  we  are  tracing  out — exhibits  it  from  moment  to 
moment  in  the  balancing  of  mechanical  forces ;  from  hour  to 
hour  in  the  balancing  of  functions ;  from  year  to  year  in  the 
changes  of  state  that  compensate  changes  of  condition;  and 
finally  in  the  complete  arrest  of  vital  movements  at  death. 
Let  us  consider  the  facts  under  these  heads. 

The  sensible  motion  constituting  each  visible  action  of 
an  organism,  is  soon  brought  to  a  close  by  some  adverse  force 
within  or  without  the  organism.  When  the  arm  is  raised, 
the  motion  given  to  it  is  antagonized  partly  by  gravity  and 
partly  by  the  internal  resistances  consequent  on  structure; 
and  its  motion,  thus  suffering  continual  deduction,  ends 
when  the  arm  has  reached  a  position  at  which  the  forces  are 
equilibrated.  The  limits  of  each  systole  and  diastole  of  the 
heart,  severally  show  us  a  momentary  equilibrium  between 
muscular  strains  that  produce  opposite  movements ;  and  each 
gush  of  blood  requires  to  be  immediately  followed  by  an- 
other, because  the  rapid  dissipation  of  its  momentum 
would  otherwise  soon  bring  the  mass  of  circulating  fluid  to 
a  stand.  As  much  in  the  actions  and  re-actions  going  on 
among  the  internal  organs,  as  in  the  mechanical  balanc- 


512  EQUILIBRATION. 

ing  of  the  whole  body,  there  is  at  every  instant  a  pro- 
gressive equilibration  of  the  motions  at  every  instant  pro- 
duced. Viewed  in  their  aggregate,  and  as  forming 
a  series,  the  organic  functions  constitute  a  dependent  mov- 
ing equilibrium — a  moving  equilibrium,  of  which  the 
motive  power  is  ever  being  dissipated  through  the  special 
equilibrations  just  exemplified,  and  is  ever  being  renewed 
by  the  taking  in  of  additional  motive  power.  Food  is  a 
store  of  force  which  continually  adds  to  the  momentum  of 
the  vital  actions,  as  much  as  is  continually  deducted  from 
them  by  the  forces  overcome.  All  the  functional  move- 
ments thus  maintained,  are,  as  we  have  seen,  rhythmical 
(§  85) ;  by  their  union  compound  rhythms  of  various  lengths 
and  complexities  are  produced;  and  in  these  simple  and  com- 
pound rhythms,  the  process  of  equilibration,  besides  being 
exemplified  at  each  extreme  of  every  rhythm,  is  seen  in  the 
habitual  preservation  of  a  constant  mean,  and  in  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  that  mean  when  accidental  causes  have  produced 
divergence  from  it.  When,  for  instance,  there  is  a  great  ex- 
penditure of  motion  through  muscular  activity,  there  arises 
a  re-active  demand  on  those  stores  of  latent  motion  which  are 
laid  up  in  the  form  of  consumable  matter  throughout  the  tis- 
sues :  increased  respiration  and  increased  rapidity  of  circula- 
tion, are  instrumental  to  an  extra  genesis  of  force,  that  coun- 
terbalances the  extra  dissipation  of  force.  This  unusual 
transformation  of  molecular  motion  into  sensible  motion,  is 
presently  followed  by  an  unusual  absorption  of  food — the 
source  of  molecular  motion;  and  in  proportion  as  there  has 
been  a  prolonged  draft  upon  the  spare  capital  of  the  system, 
is  there  a  tendency  to  a  prolonged  rest,  during  which  that 
spare  capital  is  replaced.  If  the  deviation  from  the  ordinary 
course  of  the  functions  has  been  so  great  as  to  derange  them, 
as  when  violent  exertion  produces  loss  of  appetite  and  loss 
of  sleep,  an  equilibration  is  still  eventually  effected.  Pro- 
viding the  disturbance  is  not  such  as  to  overturn  the  balance 
of  the  functions,  and  destroy  life  (in  which  case  a  complete 


EQUILIBRATION.  513 

equilibration  is  suddenly  effected),  the  ordinary  balance  is 
by  and  by  re-established:  the  returning  appetite  is  keen  in 
proportion  as  the  waste  has  been  large;  while  sleep,  sound 
and  prolonged,  makes  up  for  previous  wakefulness.  Kot 
even  in  those  extreme  cases  where  some  excess  has  wrought 
a  derangement  that  is  never  wholly  rectified,  is  there  an 
exception  to  the  general  law;  for  in  such  cases  the  cycle 
of  the  functions  is,  after  a  time,  equilibrated  about  a  new 
mean  state,  which  henceforth  becomes  the  normal  state  of 
the  individual.  Thus,  among  the  involved  rhythmical 
changes  constituting  organic  life,  any  disturbing  force  that 
works  an  excess  of  change  in  some  direction,  is  gradually 
diminished  and  finally  neutralized  by  antagonistic  forces; 
which  thereupon  work  a  compensating  change  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  and  so,  after  more  or  less  of  oscillation,  restore 
the  medium  condition.  And  this  process  it  is,  which 
constitutes  what  physicians  call  the  vis  medicatrix  na- 
turce.  The  third  form  of  equilibration  displayed  by 

organic  bodies,  is  a  necessary  sequence  of  that  just  illustrated. 
When  through  a  change  of  habit  or  circumstance,  an  organ- 
ism is  permanently  subject  to  some  new  influence,  or  differ- 
ent amount  of  an  old  influence,  there  arises,  after  more  or 
less  disturbance  of  the  organic  rhythms,  a  balancing  of  them 
around  the  new  average  condition  produced  by  this  addi- 
tional influence.  As  temporary  divergences  of  the  organic 
rhythms  are  counteracted  by  temporary  divergences  of  a  re- 
verse kind;  so  there  is  an  equilibration  of  their  permanent 
divergences  by  the  genesis  of  opposing  divergences  that  are 
equally  permanent.  If  the  quantity  of  motion  to  be  ha- 
bitually generated  by  a  muscle,  becomes  greater  than  before, 
its  nutrition  becomes  greater  than  before.  If  the  expendi- 
ture of  the  muscle  bears  to  its  nutrition,  a  greater  ratio  than 
expenditure  bears  to  nutrition  in  other  parts  of  the  system; 
the  excess  of  nutrition  becomes  such  that  the  muscle  grows. 
And  the  cessation  of  its  growth  is  the  establishment  of  a  bal- 
ance between  the  daily  waste  and  the  daily  repair — the 


514  EQUILIBRATION. 

daily  expenditure  of  force,  and  the  amount  of  latent  force 
daily  added.  The  like  must  manifestly  be  the  case  with 
all  organic  modifications  consequent  on  change  of  climate 
or  food.  This  is  a  conclusion  which  we  may  safely  draw 
without  knowing  the  special  re-arrangements  that  effect  the 
equilibration.  If  we  see  that  a  different  mode  of  life  is 
followed,  after  a  period  of  functional  derangement,  by  some 
altered  condition  of  the  system — if  we  see  that  this  altered 
condition,  becoming  by  and  by  established,  continues  with- 
out further  change;  we  have  no  alternative  but  to  say,  that 
the  new  forces  brought  to  bear  on  the  system,  have  been 
compensated  by  the  opposing  forces  they  have  evoked. 
And  this  is  the  interpretation  of  the  process  which  we  call 
adaptation.  Finally,  each  organism  illustrates  the 

law  in  the  ensemhle  of  its  life.  At  the  outset  it  daily  absorbs 
under  the  form  of  food,  an  amount  of  force  greater  than  it 
daily  expends;  and  the  surplus  is  daily  equilibrated  by 
groAvth.  As  maturity  is  approached,  this  surplus  dimin- 
ishes; and  in  the  perfect  organism,  the  day's  absorption  of 
potential  motion  balances  the  day's  expenditure  of  actual 
motion.  That  is  to  say,  during  adult  life,  there  is  continu- 
ously exhibited  an  equilibration  of  the  third  order.  Even- 
tually, the  daily  loss,  beginning  to  out-balance  the  daily 
gain,  there  results  a  diminishing  amount  of  functional  ac- 
tion; the  organic  rhythms  extend  less  and  less  widely  on 
each  side  of  the  medium  state ;  and  there  finally  results  that 
complete  equilibration  which  we  call  death. 

The  ultimate  structural  state  accompanying  that  ulti- 
mate functional  state  towards  which  an  organism  tends,  both 
individually  and  as  a  species,  may  be  deduced  from  one  of 
the  propositions  set  down  in  the  opening  section  of  this  chap- 
ter. AVe  saw  that  the  limit  of  heterogeneity  is  arrived  at 
whenever  the  equilibration  of  any  aggregate  becomes  com- 
plete— that  the  re-distribution  of  matter  can  continue  so 
long  only  as  there  continues  any  motion  unbalanced. 
Whence  we  found  it  to  follow  that  the  final  structural  ar- 


EQUILIBRATION.  51 5 

rangements,  must  be  such  as  will  meet  all  the  forces  acting 
on  the  aggregate,  by  equivalent  antagonistic  forces.  What  is 
the  implication  in  the  case  of  organic  aggregates;  the  equi- 
librium of  which  is  a  moving  one?  We  have  seen  that  the 
maintenance  of  such  a  moving  equilibrium,  requires  the 
habitual  genesis  of  internal  forces  corresponding  in  number, 
directions,  and  amounts  to  the  external  incident  forces — as 
many  inner  functions,  single  or  combined,  as  there  are  single 
or  combined  outer  actions  to  be  met.  But  functions  are  the 
correlatives  of  organs;  amounts  of  functions  are,  other 
things  equal,  the  correlatives  of  sizes  of  organs ;  and  combi- 
nations of  functions  the  correlatives  of  connections  of  or- 
gans. Hence  the  structural  complexity  accompanying 
functional  equilibration,  is  definable  as  one  in  which  there 
are  as  many  specialized  parts  as  are  capable,  separately  and 
jointly,  of  counteracting  the  separate  and  joint  forces  amid 
which  the  organism  exists.  And  this  is  the  limit  of  organic 
heterogeneity;  to  which  man  has  approached  more  nearly 
than  any  other  creature. 

Groups  of  organisms  display  this  universal  tendency  to- 
wards a  balance  very  obviously.  In  §  85,  every  species  of 
plant  and  animal  was  shown  to  be  perpetually  undergoing  a 
rhythmical  variation  in  number — now  from  abundance  of 
food  and  absence  of  enemies  rising  above  its  average;  and 
then  by  a  consequent  scarcity  of  food  and  abundance  of  ene- 
mies being  depressed  below  its  average.  And  here  we  have 
to  observe  that  there  is  thus  maintained  an  equilibrium  be- 
tween the  sum  of  those  forces  which  result  in  the  increase  of 
each  race,  and  the  sum  of  those  forces  which  result  in  its  de- 
crease. Either  limit  of  variation  is  a  point  at  which  the  one 
set  of  forces,  before  in  excess  of  the  other,  is  counterbalanced 
by  it.  And  amid  these  oscillations  produced  by  their  con- 
flict, lies  that  average  number  of  the  species  at  which  its 
expansive  tendency  is  in  equilibrium  with  surrounding  re- 
pressive tendencies.  ^Nor  can  it  be  questioned  that  this  bal- 
ancing of  the  preservative  and  destructive  forces  which 


516  EQUILIBRATION. 

we  see  going  on  in  every  race,  must  necessarily  go  on.  Since 
increase  of  number  cannot  but  continue  until  increase  of 
mortality  stops  it;  and  decrease  of  number  cannot  but  con- 
tinue until  it  is  either  arrested  by  fertility  or  extinguishes 
the  race  entirely. 

§  174.  The  equilibrations  of  those  nervous  actions 
which  constitute  what  we  know  as  mental  life,  may  be  classi- 
fied in  like  manner  with  those  which  constitute  what  we  dis- 
tinguish as  bodily  life.  AVe  may  deal  with  them  in  the 
same  order. 

Each  pulse  of  nervous  force  from  moment  to  moment 
generated,  (and  it  was  shown  in  §  86  that  nervous  currents 
are  not  continuous  but  rhythmical)  is  met  by  coun- 
teracting forces;  in  overcoming  which  it  is  dispersed  and 
equilibrated.  When  tracing  out  the  correlation  and  equiva- 
lence of  forces,  we  saw  that  each  sensation  and  emo- 
tion, or  rather  such  part  of  it  as  remains  after  the  exci- 
tation of  associated  ideas  and  feelings,  is  expended  in 
working  bodily  changes — contractions  of  the  involuntary 
muscles,  the  voluntary  muscles,  or  both;  as  also  in  a  cer- 
tain stimulation  of  secreting  organs.  That  the  movements 
thus  initiated  are  ever  being  brought  to  a  close  by  the  oppos- 
ing forces  they  evoke,  was  pointed  out  above ;  and  here  it  is 
to  be  observed  that  the  like  holds  with  the  nervous  changes 
thus  initiated.  Various  facts  prove  that  the  arousing  of  a 
thought  or  feeling,  always  involves  the  overcoming  of  a  cer- 
tain resistance :  instance  the  fact  that  where  the  association 
of  mental  states  has  not  been  frequent,  a  sensible  effort  is 
needed  to  call  up  the  one  after  the  other;  instance  the  fact 
that  during  nervous  prostration  there  is  a  comparative  in- 
ability to  think — the  ideas  will  not  follow  one  another  with 
the  habitual  rapidity;  instance  the  converse  fact  that  at  times 
of  unusual  energy,  natural  or  artificial,  the  friction  of 
thought  becomes  relatively  small,  and  more  numerous,  more 
remote,  or  more  difficult  connections  of  ideas  are  formed. 


EQUILIBRATION.  517 

That  is  to  say,  the  wave  of  nervous  energy  each  instant  gen- 
erated, propagates  itself  throughout  body  and  brain,  along 
those  channels  which  the  conditions  at  the  instant  render 
lines  of  least  resistance;  and  spreading  widely  in  proportion 
to  its  amount,  ends  only  when  it  is  equilibrated  by  the  resist- 
ances it  everywhere  meets.  If  we  contemplate  men- 
tal actions  as  extending  over  hours  and  days,  we  discover 
equilibrations  analogous  to  those  hourly  and  daily  estab- 
lished among  the  bodily  functions.  In  the  one  case  as  in 
the  other,  there  are  rhythms  which  exhibit  a  balancing  of 
opposing  forces  at  each  extreme,  and  the  maintenance  of  a 
certain  general  balance.  This  is  seen  in  the  daily  alterna- 
tion of  mental  activity  and  mental  rest — the  forces  expend- 
ed during  the  one  being  compensated  by  the  forces  ac- 
quired during  the  other.  It  is  also  seen  in  the  recurring 
rise  and  fall  of  each  desire:  each  desire  reaching  a  certain 
intensity,  is  equilibrated  either  by  expenditure  of  the  force 
it  embodies,  in  the  desired  actions,  or,  less  completely,  in  the 
imagination  of  such  actions:  the  process  ending  in  that  sa- 
tiety, or  that  comparative  quiescence,  forming  the  opposite 
limit  of  the  rhythm.  And  it  is  further  manifest  under  a  two- 
fold form,  on  occasions  of  intense  joy  or  grief:  each  parox- 
ysm of  passion,  expressing  itself  in  vehement  bodily  actions, 
presently  reaches  an  extreme  whence  the  counteracting 
forces  produce  a  return  to  a  condition  of  moderate  excite- 
ment; and  the  successive  paroxysms  finally  diminishing  in 
intensity,  end  in  a  mental  equilibrium  either  like  that  be- 
fore existing,  or  partially  differing  from  it  in  its  medium 
state.  But  the  species  of  mental  equilibration  to  be 
more  especially  noted,  is  that  shown  in  the  establishment  of 
a  correspondence  between  relations  among  our  states  of  con- 
sciousness and  relations  in  the  external  world.  Each  outer 
connection  of  phenomena  which  we  are  capable  of  perceiv- 
ing, generates,  through  accumulated  experiences,  an  inner 
connection  of  mental  state;  and  the  result  towards  which 
this  process  tends,  is  the  formation  of  a  mental  connection 


518  EQUILIBRATION. 

having  a  relative  strength  that  answers  to  the  relative  con- 
stancy of  the  physical  connection  represented.  In  conform- 
ity with  the  general  law  that  motion  pursues  the  line  of 
least  resistance,  and  that,  other  things  equal,  a  line  once 
taken  by  motion  is  made  a  line  that  will  be  more  readily 
pursued  by  future  motion;  we  have  seen  that  the  ease  with 
which  nervous  impressions  follow  one  another,  is,  other 
things  equal,  great  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  times 
they  have  been  repeated  together  in  experience.  Hence, 
corresponding  to  such  an  invariable  relation  as  that  between 
the  resistance  of  an  object  and  some  extension  possessed 
by  it,  there  arises  an  indissoluble  connection  in  conscious- 
ness; and  this  connection,  being  as  absolute  internally  as  the 
answering  one  is  externally,  undergoes  no  further  change — 
the  inner  relation  is  in  perfect  equilibrium  with  the  outer 
relation.  Conversely,  it  hence  happens  that  to  such  uncer- 
tain relations  of  phenomena  as  that  between  clouds  and  rain, 
there  arise  relations  of  ideas  of  a  like  uncertainty;  and  if, 
under  given  aspects  of  the  sky,  the  tendencies  to  infer  fair 
or  foul  weather,  correspond  to  the  frequencies  with  which 
fair  or  foul  weather  follow  such  aspects,  the  accumulation  of 
experiences  has  balanced  the  mental  sequences  and  the 
physical  sequences.  When  it  is  remembered  that  between 
these  extremes  there  are  countless  orders  of  external  connec- 
tions having  different  degrees  of  constancy,  and  that  during 
the  evolution  of  intelligence  there  arise  answering  internal 
associations  having  different  degrees  of  cohesion;  it  will  be 
seen  that  there  is  a  progress  towards  equilibrium  between 
the  relations  of  thought  and  the  relations  of  things.  This 
equilibration  can  end  only  when  each  relation  of  things 
has  generated  in  us  a  relation  of  thought,  such  that  on  the 
occurrence  of  the  conditions,  the  relation  in  thought  arises 
as  certainly  as  the  relation  in  things.  Supposing  this  state 
to  be  reached  (which  however  it  can  be  only  in  infinite  time) 
experience  will  cease  to  produce  any  further  mental  evolu- 
tion— there  will  have  been  reached  a  perfect  correspondence 


EQUILIBRATION.  519 

between  ideas  and  facts;  and  the  intellectual  adaptation  of 
man  to  his  circumstances  will  be  complete.  The 

like  general  truths  are  exhibited  in  the  process  of  moral 
adaptation;  which  is  a  continual  approach  to  equilibrium 
between  the  emotions  and  the  kinds  of  conduct  necessitated 
by  surrounding  conditions.  The  connections  of  feelings  and 
actions,  are  determined  in  the  same  way  as  the  connections 
of  ideas:  just  as  repeating  the  association  of  two  ideas,  facili- 
tates the  excitement  of  the  one  by  the  other;  so  does  each 
discharge  of  feeling  into  action,  render  the  subsequent  dis- 
charge of  such  feeling  into  such  action  more  easy.  Hence  it 
happens  that  if  an  individual  is  placed  permanently  in  condi- 
tions which  demand  more  action  of  a  special  kind  than  has 
before  been  requisite,  or  than  is  natural  to  him — if  the  pres- 
sure of  the  painful  feelings  which  these  conditions  entail 
when  disregarded,  impels  him  to  perform  this  action  to  a 
greater  extent — if  by  every  more  frequent  or  more  length- 
ened performance  of  it  under  such  pressure,  the  resistance  is 
somewhat  diminished;  then,  clearly,  there  is  an  advance  to- 
wards a  balance  between  the  demand  for  this  kind  of  action 
and  the  supply  of  it.  Either  in  himself,  or  in  his  descend- 
ants continuing  to  live  under  these  conditions,  enforced 
repetition  must  eventually  bring  about  a  state  in  which  this 
mode  of  directing  the  energies  will  be  no  more  repugnant 
than  the  various  other  modes  previously  natural  to  the 
race.  Hence  the  limit  towards  which  emotional  modifica- 
tion perpetually  tends,  and  to  which  it  must  approach  indefi- 
nitely near  (though  it  can  absolutely  reach  it  only  in  infinite 
time)  is  a  combination  of  desires  that  correspond  to  all  the 
different  orders  of  activity  which  the  circumstances  of  life 
call  for — desires  severally  proportionate  in  strength  to  the 
needs  for  these  orders  of  activity;  and  severally  satisfied 
by  these  orders  of  activity.  In  what  we  distinguish  as 
acquired  habits,  and  in  the  moral  differences  of  races  and 
nations  produced  by  habits  that  are  maintained  through  suc- 
cessive generations,  we  have  countless  illustrations  of  this 


520  EQUILIBRATION. 

progressive  adaptation;  which  can  cease  only  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  complete  equilibrium  between  constitution  and 
conditions. 

Possibly  some  will  fail  to  see  how  the  equilibrations  de- 
scribed in  this  section,  can  be  classed  with  those  preceding 
them;  and  will  be  inclined  to  say  that  what  are  here  set 
down  as  facts,  are  but  analogies.  Xevertheless  such  equili- 
brations are  as  truly  physical  as  the  rest.  To  show  this 
fully,  would  require  a  more  detailed  analysis  than  can  now 
be  entered  on.  For  the  present  it  must  suffice  to  point  out,  as 
before  (§  71),  that  what  we  know  subjectively  as  states  of 
consciousness,  are,  objectively,  modes  of  force;  that  so  much 
feeling  is  the  correlate  of  so  much  motion ;  that  the  perform- 
ance of  any  bodily  action  is  the  transformation  of  a  certain 
amount  of  feeling  into  its  equivalent  amount  of  motion ;  that 
this  bodily  action  is  met  by  forces  which  it  is  expended  in 
overcoming;  and  that  the  necessity  for  the  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  this  action,  implies  the  frequent  recurrence  of  forces 
to  be  so  overcome.  Hence  the  existence  in  any  individual  of 
an  emotional  stimulus  that  is  in  equilibrium  with  certain  ex- 
ternal requirements,  is  literally  the  habitual  production  of  a 
certain  specialized  portion  of  nervous  energy,  equivalent  in 
amount  to  a  certain  order  of  external  resistances  that  are 
habitually  met.  And  thus  the  ultimate  state,  forming  the 
limit  towards  which  Evolution  carries  us,  is  one  in  which  the 
kinds  and  quantities  of  mental  energy  daily  generated  and 
transformed  into  motions,  are  equivalent  to,  or  in  equilib- 
rium with,  the  various  orders  and  degrees  of  surrounding 
forces  which  antagonize  such  motions. 

§  175.  Each  society  taken  as  a  whole,  displays  the  pro- 
cess of  equilibration  in  the  continuous  adjustment  of  its 
population  to  its  means  of  subsistence.  A  tribe  of  men  liv- 
ing on  wild  animals  and  fruits,  is  manifestly,  like  every 
tribe  of  inferior  creatures,  always  oscillating  about  that 
average  number  which  the  locality  can  support.     Though 


EQUILIBRATION.  521 

by  artificial  production,  and  by  successive  improvements  in 
artificial  production,  a  superior  race  continually  alters  the 
limit  which  external  conditions  put  to  population ;  yet  there 
is  ever  a  checking  of  population  at  the  temporary  limit 
reached.  It  is  true  that  where  the  limit  is  being  so  rapidly 
changed  as  among  ourselves,  there  is  no  actual  stoppage: 
there  is  only  a  rhythmical  variation  in  the  rate  of  increase. 
But  in  noting  the  causes  of  this  rhythmical  variation — in 
watching  how,  during  periods  of  abundance,  the  proportion 
of  marriages  increases,  and  how  it  decreases  during  periods 
of  scarcity ;  it  will  be  seen  that  the  expansive  force  produces 
unusual  advance  whenever  the  repressive  force  diminishes, 
and  vice  versa;  and  thus  there  is  as  near  balancing  of  the 
two  as  the  changing  conditions  permit. 

The  internal  actions  constituting  social  functions,  exem- 
plify the  general  principle  no  less  clearly.  Supply  and  de- 
mand are  continually  being  adjusted  throughout  all  indus- 
trial processes;  and  this  equilibration  is  interpretable  in  the 
same  way  as  preceding  ones.  The  production  and  distribu- 
tion of  a  commodity,  is  the  expression  of  a  certain  aggregate 
of  forces  causing  special  kinds  and  amounts  of  motion.  The 
price  of  this  commodity,  is  the  measure  of  a  certain  other 
aggregate  of  forces  expended  by  the  labourer  who  purchases 
it,  in  other  kinds  and  amounts  of  motion.  And  the  varia- 
tions of  price  represent  a  rhythmical  balancing  of  these 
forces.  Every  rise  or  fall  in  the  rate  of  interest,  or  change 
in  the  value  of  a  particular  security,  implies  a  conflict  of 
forces  in  which  some,  becoming  temporarily  predominant, 
cause  a  movement  that  is  presently  arrested  or  equilibrated 
by  the  increase  of  opposing  forces ;  and  amid  these  daily  and 
hourly  oscillations,  lies  a  more  slowly-varying  medium,  into 
which  the  value  ever  tends  to  settle ;  and  would  settle  but  for 
the  constant  addition  of  new  influences.  As  in  the 

individual  organism  so  in  the  social  organism,  functional 
equilibrations  generate  structural  equilibrations.    When  on 
the  workers  in  any  trade  there  comes  an  increased  demand, 
35 


522  EQUILIBRATION. 

and  when  in  return  for  the  increased  supply,  there  is  given  to 
them  an  amount  of  other  commodities  larger  than  was  before 
habitual — when,  consequently,  the  resistances  overcome  by 
them  in  sustaining  life  are  less  than  the  resistances  overcome 
by  other  workers;  there  results  a  now  of  other  workers  into 
this  trade.  This  flow  continues  until  the  extra  demand  is 
met,  and  the  wages  so  far  fall  again,  that  the  total  resistance 
overcome  in  obtaining  a  given  amount  of  produce,  is  as 
great  in  this  newly-adopted  occupation  as  in  the  occupations 
whence  it  drew  recruits.  The  occurrence  of  motion  along 
lines  of  least  resistance,  was  before  shown  to  necessitate  the 
growth  of  population  in  those  places  where  the  labour  re- 
quired for  self -maintenance  is  the  smallest;  and  here  we  fur- 
ther see  that  those  engaged  in  any  such  advantageous  local- 
ity, or  advantageous  business,  must  multiply  till  there  arises 
an  approximate  balance  between  this  locality  or  business  and 
others  accessible  to  the  same  citizens.  In  determining 
the  career  of  every  youth,  we  see  an  estimation  by  parents  of 
the  respective  advantages  offered  by  all  that  are  available, 
and  a  choice  of  the  one  which  promises  best;  and  through 
the  consequent  influx  into  trades  that  are  at  the  time  most 
profitable,  and  the  withholding  of  recruits  from  over-stocked 
trades,  there  is  insured  a  general  equipoise  between  the 
power  of  each  social  organ  and  the  function  it  has  to  per- 
form. 

The  various  industrial  actions  and  re-actions  thus  con- 
tinually alternating,  constitute  a  dependent  moving  equi- 
librium like  that  which  is  maintained  among  the  functions 
of  an  individual  organism.  And  this  dependent  moving 
equilibrium  parallels  those  already  contemplated,  in  its 
tendency  to  become  more  complete.  During  early  stages  of 
social  evolution,  while  yet  the  resources  of  the  locality  in- 
habited are  unexplored,  and  the  arts  of  production  undevel- 
oped, there  is  never  anything  more  than  a  temporary  and 
partial  balancing  of  such  actions,  under  the  form  of  accelera- 
tion or  retardation  of  growth.     But  when  a  society  ap- 


EQUILIBRATION.  523 

proaclies  the  maturity  of  that  type  on  which  it  is  organized, 
the  various  industrial  activities  settle  down  into  a  compara- 
tively constant  state.  Moreover,  it  is  observable  that  advance 
in  organization,  as  well  as  advance  in  growth,  is  conducive 
to  a  better  equilibrium  of  industrial  functions.  While  the 
diffusion  of  mercantile  information  is  slow,  and  the  means  of 
transport  deficient,  the  adjustment  of  supply  to  demand  is 
extremely  imperfect:  great  over-production  of  each  com- 
modity followed  by  great  under-production,  constitute  a 
rhythm  having  extremes  that  depart  very  widely  from  the 
mean  state  in  which  demand  and  supply  are  equilibrated. 
But  when  good  roads  are  made,  and  there  is  a  rapid  diffusion 
of  printed  or  written  intelligence,  and  still  more  when  rail- 
ways and  telegraphs  come  into  existence — when  the  periodi- 
cal fairs  of  early  days  lapse  into  weekly  markets,  and  these 
into  daily  markets ;  there  is  gradually  produced  a  better  bal- 
ance of  production  and  consumption.  Extra  demand  is 
much  more  quickly  followed  by  augmented  supply ;  and  the 
rapid  oscillations  of  price  within  narrow  limits  on  either  side 
of  a  comparatively  uniform  mean,  indicate  a  near  approach 
to  equilibrium.  Evidently  this  industrial  progress 

has  for  its  limit,  that  which  Mr.  Mill  has  called  "  the  sta- 
tionary state."  When  population  shall  have  become  dense 
over  all  habitable  parts  of  the  globe ;  when  the  resources  of 
every  region  have  been  fully  explored;  and  when  the  pro- 
ductive arts  admit  of  no  further  improvements;  there  must 
result  an  almost  complete  balance,  both  between  the  fertility 
and  mortality  of  each  society,  and  between  its  producing  and 
consuming  activities.  Each  society  will  exhibit  only  minor 
deviations  from  its  average  number,  and  the  rhythm  of  its 
industrial  functions  will  go  on  from  day  to  day  and  year 
to  year  with  comparatively  insignificant  perturbations.  This 
limit,  however,  though  we  are  inevitably  advancing  towards 
it,  is  indefinitely  remote ;  and  can  never  indeed  be  absolutely 
reached.  The  peopling  of  the  Earth  up  to  the  point  sup- 
posed, cannot  take  place  by  simple  spreading.     In  the  fu- 


524  EQUILIBRATION. 

ture,  as  in  the  past,  the  process  will  be  carried  on  rhythmical- 
ly? by  waves  of  emigration  from  new  and  higher  centres  of 
civilization  successively  arising;  and  by  the  supplanting  of 
inferior  races  by  the  superior  races  they  beget;  and  the 
process  so  carried  on  must  be  extremely  slow.  Xor  does 
it  seem  to  me  that  such  an  equilibration  will,  as  Mr.  Mill 
suggests,  leave  scope  for  further  mental  culture  and  moral 
progress;  but  rather  that  the  approximation  to  it  must  be 
simultaneous  with  the  approximation  to  complete  equilib- 
rium between  man's  nature  and  the  conditions  of  his  ex- 
istence. 

One  other  kind  of  social  equilibration  has  still  to  be  com 
sidered : — that  which  results  in  the  establishment  of  govern- 
mental institutions,  and  which  becomes  complete  as  these 
institutions  fall  into  harmony  with  ihe  desires  of  the  people. 
There  is  a  demand  and  supply  in  political  affairs  as  in  in- 
dustrial affairs;  and  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other,  the  antag- 
onist forces  produce  a  rhythm  which,  at  first  extreme  in  its 
oscillations,  slowly  settles  down  into  a  moving  equilibrium 
of  comparative  regularity.  Those  aggressive  impulses  in- 
herited from  the  pre-social  state — those  tendencies  to  seek 
self-satisfaction  regardless  of  injury  to  other  beings,  which 
are  essential  to  a  predatory  life,  constitute  an  anti-social 
force,  tending  ever  to  cause  conflict  and  eventual  separation 
of  citizens.  Contrariwise,  those  desires  whose  ends  can  be 
achieved  only  by  union,  as  well  as  those  sentiments  which 
find  satisfaction  through  intercourse  with  fellow-men,  and 
those  resulting  in  what  we  call  loyalty,  are  forces  tending 
to  keep  the  units  of  a  society  together.  On  the  one  hand, 
there  is  in  each  citizen,  more  or  less  of  resistance  against 
all  restraints  imposed  on  his  actions  by  other  citizens:  a  re- 
sistance which,  tending  continually  to  widen  each  indi- 
vidual's sphere  of  action,  and  reciprocally  to  limit  the 
spheres  of  action  of  other  individuals,  constitutes  a  repul- 
sive force  mutually  exercised  by  the  members  of  a  social 
aggregate.     On  the  other  hand,  the  general  sympathy  of 


EQUILIBRATION.  525 

man  for  man,  and  the  more  special  sympathy  of  each  vari- 
ety of  man  for  others  of  the  same  variety,  together  with 
sundry  allied  feelings  which  the  social  state  gratifies,  act 
as  an  attractive  force,  tending  ever  to  keep  united  those  who 
have  a  common  ancestry.  And  since  the  resistances  to  be 
overcome  in  satisfying  the  totality  of  their  desires  when 
living  separately,  are  greater  than  the  resistances  to  be  over- 
come in  satisfying  the  totality  of  their  desires  when  living 
together,  there  is  a  residuary  force  that  prevents  their  sepa- 
ration. Like  all  other  opposing  forces,  those  exerted  by 
citizens  on  each  other,  are  ever  producing  alternating  move- 
ments, which,  at  first  extreme,  undergo  a  gradual  diminu- 
tion on  the  way  to  ultimate  equilibrium.  In  small,  unde- 
veloped, societies,  marked  rhythms  result  from  these  con- 
flicting tendencies.  A  tribe  whose  members  have  held 
together  for  a  generation  or  two,  reaches  a  size  at  which  it 
will  not  hold  together ;  and  on  the  occurrence  of  some  event 
causing  unusual  antagonism  among  its  members,  divides. 
Each  primitive  nation,  depending  largely  for  its  continued 
union  on  the  character  of  its  chief,  exhibits  wide  oscilla- 
tions between  an  extreme  in  which  the  subjects  are  under 
rigid  restraint,  and  an  extreme  in  which  the  restraint  is 
not  enough  to  prevent  disorder.  In  more  advanced  nations 
of  like  type,  we  always  find  violent  actions  and  reactions  of 
the  same  essential  nature — "  despotism  tempered  by  assas- 
sination," characterizing  a  political  state  in  which  unbear- 
able repression  from  time  to  time  brings  about  a  bursting 
of  all  bonds.  In  this  familiar  fact,  that  a  period  of  tyranny 
is  followed  by  a  period  of  license  and  vice  versa,  we  see  how 
these  opposing  forces  are  ever  equilibrating  each  other;  and 
we  also  see,  in  the  tendency  of  such  movements  and  counter- 
movements  to  become  more  moderate,  how  the  equilibra- 
tion progresses  towards  completeness.  The  conflicts  be- 
tween Conservatism  (which  stands  for  the  restraints  of  so- 
ciety over  the  individual)  and  Reform  (which  stands  for 
the  liberty  of  the  individual  against  society),  fall  within 


526  EQUILIBRATION. 

slowly  approximating  limits;  so  that  the  temporary  pre- 
dominance of  either,  produces  a  less  marked  deviation  from 
the  medium  state.  This  process,  now  so  far  ad- 

vanced among  ourselves  that  the  oscillations  are  compara- 
tively unobtrusive,  must  go  on  till  the  balance  between  the 
antagonistic  forces  approaches  indefinitely  near  perfection. 
For,  as  wTe  have  already  seen,  the  adaptation  of  man's  nature 
to  the  conditions  of  his  existence,  cannot  cease  until  the  in- 
ternal forces  which  we  know  as  feelings  are  in  equilibrium 
with  the  external  forces  they  encounter.  And  the  establish- 
ment of  this  equilibrium,  is  the  arrival  at  a  state  of  human 
nature  and  social  organization,  such  that  the  individual  has 
no  desires  but  those  which  may  be  satisfied  without  exceed- 
ing his  proper  sphere  of  action,  while  society  maintains  no 
restraints  but  those  which  the  individual  voluntarily  re- 
spects. The  progressive  extension  of  the  liberty  of  citizens, 
and  the  reciprocal  removal  of  political  restrictions,  are  the 
steps  by  which  we  advance  towards  this  state.  And  the  ulti- 
mate abolition  of  all  limits  to  the  freedom  of  each,  save  those 
imposed  by  the  like  freedom  of  all,  must  result  from  the 
complete  equilibration  between  man's  desires  and  the  con- 
duct necessitated  by  surrounding  conditions. 

Of  course  in  this  case,  as  in  the  preceding  ones,  there  is 
thus  involved  a  limit  to  the  increase  of  heterogeneity.  A 
few  pages  back,  we  reached  the  conclusion  that  each  advance 
in  mental  evolution,  is  the  establishment  of  some  further 
internal  action,  corresponding  to  some  further  external  ac- 
tion— some  additional  connection  of  ideas  or  feelings,  an- 
swering to  some  before  unknown  or  unantagonized  con- 
nection of  phenomena.  We  inferred  that  each  such  new 
function,  involving  some  new  modification  of  structure, 
implies  an  increase  of  heterogeneity;  and  that  thus,  in- 
crease of  heterogeneity  must  go  on,  while  there  remain  any 
outer  relations  affecting  the  organism  which  are  unbalanced 
by  inner  relations.  Whence  we  saw  it  to  follow  that  in- 
crease of  heterogeneity  can  come  to  an  end  only  as  equilibra- 


EQUILIBRATION.  527 

tion  is  completed.  Evidently  the  like  must  simultaneously 
take  place  with  society.  Each  increment  of  heterogeneity 
in  the  individual,  must  directly  or  indirectly  involve,  as 
cause  or  consequence,  some  increment  of  heterogeneity  in 
the  arrangements  of  the  aggregate  of  individuals.  And  the 
limit  to  social  complexity  can  be  arrived  at,  only  with  the 
establishment  of  the  equilibrium,  just  described,  between 
social  and  individual  forces. 

§  176.  Here  presents  itself  a  final  question,  which  has 
probably  been  taking  a  more  or  less  distinct  shape  in  the 
minds  of  many,  while  reading  this  chapter.  "  If  Evolution 
of  every  kind,  is  an  increase  in  complexity  of  structure  and 
function  that  is  incidental  to  the  universal  process  of  equili- 
bration, and  if  equilibration  must  end  in  complete  rest; 
what  is  the  fate  towards  which  all  things  tend  ?  If  the  Solar 
System  is  slowly  dissipating  its  forces — if  the  Sun  is  losing 
his  heat  at  a  rate  which  will  tell  in  millions  of  years — if 
with  diminution  of  the  Sun's  radiations  there  must  go  on  a 
diminution  in  the  activity  of  geologic  and  meteorologic 
processes  as  well  as  in  the  quantity  of  vegetal  and  animal 
existence — if  Man  and  Society  are  similarly  dependent  on 
this  supply  of  force  that  is  gradually  coining  to  an  end ;  are 
we  not  manifestly  progressing  towards  omnipresent  death?  " 

That  such  a  state  must  be  the  outcome  of  the  processes 
everywhere  going  on,  seems  beyond  doubt.  Whether  any 
ulterior  process  may  reverse  these  changes,  and  initiate  a 
new  life,  is  a  question  to  be  considered  hereafter.  Eor  the 
present  it  must  suffice  that  the  proximate  end  of  all  the 
transformations  we  have  traced,  is  a  state  of  quiescence. 
This  admits  of  a  priori  proof.  It  will  soon  become  apparent 
that  the  law  of  equilibration,  not  less  than  the  preceding 
general  laws,  is  deducible  from  the  persistence  of  force. 

We  have  seen  (§  74)  that  phenomena  are  interpretable 
only  as  the  results  of  universally-coexistent  forces  of  attrac- 
tion and  repulsion.     These  universally-coexistent  forces  of 


528  EQUILIBRATION. 

attraction  and  repulsion,  are,  indeed,  the  complementary  as- 
pects of  that  absolutely  persistent  force  which  is  the  ultimate 
datum  of  consciousness.  Just  in  the  same  way  that  the 
equality  of  action  and  re-action  is  a  corollary  from  the  per- 
sistence of  force,  since  their  inequality  would  imply  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  differential  force  into  nothing,  or  its  ap- 
pearance out  of  nothing;  so,  we  cannot  become  conscious  of 
an  attractive  force  without  becoming  simultaneously  con- 
scious of  an  equal  and  opposite  repulsive  force.  For  every 
experience  of  a  muscular  tension,  (under  which  form  alone 
we  can  immediately  know  an  attractive  force,)  presupposes 
an  equivalent  resistance — a  resistance  shown  in  the  counter- 
balancing pressure  of  the  body  against  neighbouring  objects, 
or  in  that  absorption  of  force  which  gives  motion  to  the 
body,  or  in  both — a  resistance  which  we  cannot  conceive  as 
other  than  equal  to  the  tension,  without  conceiving  force  to 
have  either  appeared  or  disappeared,  and  so  denying  the 
persistence  of  force.  And  from  this  necessary  correlation, 
results  our  inability,  before  pointed  out,  of  interpreting 
any  phenomena  save  in  terms  of  these  correlatives — an  ina- 
bility shown  alike  in  the  compulsion  we  are  under  to  think  of 
the  statical  forces  which  tangible  matter  displays,  as  due 
to  the  attraction  and  repulsion  of  its  atoms,  and  in  the  com- 
pulsion we  are  under  to  think  of  dynamical  forces  exercised 
through  space,  by  regarding  space  as  filled  with  atoms  simi- 
larly endowed.  Thus  from  the  existence  of  a  force  that  is 
for  ever  unchangeable  in  quantity,  there  follows,  as  a  neces- 
sary corollary,  the  co-extensive  existence  of  these  opposite 
forms  of  force — forms  under  which  the  conditions  of  our 
consciousness  oblige  us  to  represent  that  absolute  force 
which  transcends  our  knowledge. 

But  the  forces  of  attraction  and  repulsion  being  univer- 
sally co-existent,  it  follows,  as  before  shown,  that  all  motion 
is  motion  under  resistance.  Units  of  matter,  solid,  liquid, 
aeriform,  or  ethereal,  filling  the  space  which  any  moving 
body  traverses,  offer  to  such  body  the  resistance  consequent 


EQUILIBRATION.  529 

on  their  cohesion,  or  their  inertia,  or  both.  In  other  words, 
the  denser  or  rarer  medium  which  occupies  the  places  from 
moment  to  moment  passed  through  by  such  moving  body, 
having  to  be  expelled  from  them,  as  much  motion  is  ab- 
stracted from  the  moving  body  as  is  given  to  the  medium  in 
expelling  it  from  these  places.  This  being  the  condition 
under  which  all  motion  occurs,  two  corollaries  result.  The 
first  is,  that  the  deductions  perpetually  made  by  the  com- 
munication of  motion  to  the  resisting  medium,  cannot  but 
bring  the  motion  of  the  body  to  an  end  in  a  longer  or  shorter 
time.  The  second  is,  that  the  motion  of  the  body  cannot 
cease  until  these  deductions  destroy  it.  In  other  words, 
movement  must  continue  till  equilibration  takes  place;  and 
equilibration  must  eventually  take  place.  Both  these  are 
manifest  deductions  from  the  persistence  of  force.  To  say 
that  the  whole  or  part  of  a  body's  motion  can  disappear,  save 
by  transfer  to  something  which  resists  its  motion,  is  to  say 
that  the  whole  or  part  of  its  motion  can  disappear  without 
effect;  which  is  to  deny  the  persistence  of  force.  Con- 
versely, to  say  that  the  medium  traversed  can  be  moved  out 
of  the  body's  path,  without  deducting  from  the  body's  mo- 
tion, is  to  say  that  motion  of  the  medium  can  arise  out  of 
nothing;  which  is  to  deny  the  persistence  of  force.  Hence 
this  primordial  truth  is  our  immediate  warrant  for  the  con- 
clusions, that  the  changes  which  Evolution  presents,  cannot 
end  until  equilibrium  is  reached ;  and  that  equilibrium  must 
at  last  be  reached. 

Equally  necessary,  because  equally  deducible  from  this 
same  truth  that  transcends  proof,  are  the  foregoing  proposi- 
tions respecting  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  mov- 
ing equilibria,  under  their  several  aspects.  It  follows  from 
the  persistence  of  force,  that  the  various  motions  possessed 
by  any  aggregate,  either  as  a  whole  or  among  its  parts,  must 
be  severally  dissipated  by  the  resistances  they  severally  en- 
counter ;  and  that  thus,  such  of  them  as  are  least  in  amount, 
or  meet  with  greatest  opposition,  or  both,  will  be  brought  to 


530  EQUILIBRATION. 

a  close  while  the  others  continue.  Hence  in  every  diversely 
moving  aggregate,  there  results  a  comparatively  early  dissi- 
pation of  motions  which  are  smaller  and  much  resisted ;  fol- 
lowed by  long-continuance  of  the  larger  and  less-resisted 
motions;  and  so  there  arise  dependent  and  independent 
moving  equilibria.  Hence  also  may  be  inferred  the  tend- 
ency to  conservation  of  such  moving  equilibria.  For  the 
new  motion  given  to  the  parts  of  a  moving  equilibrium  by 
a  disturbing  force,  must  either  be  of  such  kind  and  amount 
that  it  cannot  be  dissipated  before  the  pre-existing  motions, 
in  which  case  it  brings  the  moving  equilibrium  to  an  end; 
or  else  it  must  be  of  such  kind  and  amount  that  it  can  be 
dissipated  before  the  pre-existing  motions,  in  which  case 
the  moving  equilibrium  is  re-established. 

Thus  from  the  persistence  of  force  follow,  not  only  the 
various  direct  and  indirect  equilibrations  going  on  around, 
together  with  that  cosmical  equilibration  which  brings  Evo- 
lution under  all  its  forms  to  a  close;  but  also  those  less 
manifest  equilibrations  shown  in  the  re-adjustments  of 
moving  equilibria  that  have  been  disturbed.  By  this  ulti- 
mate principle  is  provable  the  tendency  of  every  organism, 
disordered  by  some  unusual  influence,  to  return  to  a  bal- 
anced state.  To  it  also  may  be  traced  the  capacity,  pos- 
sessed in  a  slight  degree  by  individuals,  and  in  a  greater 
degree  by  species  becoming  adapted  to  new  circumstances. 
And  not  less  does  it  afford  a  basis  for  the  inference,  that 
there  is  a  gradual  advance  towards  harmony  between  man's 
mental  nature  and  the  conditions  of  his  existence.  After 
finding  that  from  it  are  deducible  the  various  characteristics 
of  Evolution,  we  finally  draw  from  it  a  warrant  for  the 
belief,  that  Evolution  can  end  only  in  the  establishment  of 
the  greatest  perfection  and  the  most  complete  happiness. 


CHAPTEE  XXIII. 


DISSOLUTION. 


§  177.  When,  in  Chapter  XII.,  Ave  glanced  at  the  cycle 
of  changes  through  which  every  existence  passes,  in  its  pro- 
gress from  the  imperceptible  to  the  perceptible  and  again 
from  the  perceptible  to  the  imperceptible — when  these 
opposite  re-distributions  of  matter  and  motion  were  sev- 
erally distinguished  as  Evolution  and  Dissolution;  the  na- 
tures of  the  two,  and  the  conditions  under  which  they 
respectively  occur,  were  specified  in  general  terms.  Since 
then,  we  have  contemplated  the  phenomena  of  Evolution  in 
detail ;  and  have  followed  them  out  to  those  states  of  equilib- 
rium in  which  they  all  end.  To  complete  the  argument 
we  must  now  contemplate,  somewhat  more  in  detail  than 
before,  the  complementary  phenomena  of  Dissolution. 
Xot,  indeed,  that  we  need  dwell  long  on  Dissolution,  which 
has  none  of  those  various  and  interesting  aspects  which  Evo- 
lution presents;  but  something  more  must  be  said  than  has 
yet  been  said. 

It  was  shown  that  neither  of  these  two  antagonistic  pro- 
cesses ever  goes  on  absolutely  unqualified  by  the  other; 
and  that  a  change  towards  either  is  a  differential  result  of 
the  conflict  between  them.  An  evolving  aggregate,  while 
on  the  average  losing  motion  and  integrating,  is  always,  in 
one  way  or  other,  receiving  some  motion  and  to  that  extent 
disintegrating;  and  after  the  integrative  changes  have 
ceased  to  predominate,   the  reception  of  motion,  though 

531 


532  DISSOLUTION. 

perpetually  checked  by  its  dissipation,  constantly  tends  to 
produce  a  reverse  transformation,  and  eventually  does  pro- 
duce it.  When  Evolution  has  run  its  course — when  the 
aggregate  has  at  length  parted  with  its  excess  of  motion, 
and  habitually  receives  as  much  from  its  environment  as  it 
habitually  loses — when  it  has  reached  that  equilibrium  in 
which  its  changes  end;  it  thereafter  remains  subject  to  all 
actions  in  its  environment  which  may  increase  the  quantity 
of  motion  it  contains,  and  which  in  the  lapse  of  time  are 
sure,  either  slowly  or  suddenly,  to  give  its  parts  such  excess 
of  motion  as  will  cause  disintegration.  According  as  its 
equilibrium  is  a  very  unstable  or  a  very  stable  one,  its  dis- 
solution may  come  quickly  or  may  be  indefinitely  delayed — 
may  occur  in  a  few  days  or  may  be  postponed  for  millions  of 
years.  But  exposed  as  it  is  to  the  contingencies  not  simply 
of  its  immediate  neighbourhood  but  of  a  Universe  every- 
where in  motion,  the  period  must  at  last  come  when,  either 
alone  or  in  company  with  surrounding  aggregates,  it  has  its 
parts  dispersed. 

The  process  of  dissolution  so  caused,  we  have  here  to  look 
at  as  it  takes  place  in  aggregates  of  different  orders.  The 
course  of  change  being  the  reverse  of  that  hitherto  traced, 
we  may  properly  take  the  illustrations  of  it  in  the  reverse 
order — beginning  with  the  most  complex  and  ending  with 
the  most  simple. 

§  178.  Regarding  the  evolution  of  a  society  as  at  once 
an  increase  in  the  number  of  individuals  integrated  into  a 
corporate  body,  an  increase  in  the  masses  and  varieties  of 
the  parts  into  which  this  corporate  body  divides  as  well  as 
of  the  actions  called  their  functions,  and  an  increase  in  the 
degree  of  combination  among  these  masses  and  their  func- 
tions; we  shall  see  that  social  dissolution  conforms  to  the 
general  law  in  being,  materially  considered,  a  disintegration, 
and,  dynamically  considered,  a  decrease  in  the  movements 
of  wholes  and  an  increase  in  the  movements  of  parts;  while 


DISSOLUTION. 


533 


it  further  conforms  to  the  general  law  in  being  caused  by 
an  excess  of  motion  in  some  way  or  other  received  from 
without. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  social  dissolution  which  follows  the 
aggression  of  another  nation,  and  which,  as  history  shows 
us,  is  apt  to  occur  when  social  evolution  has  ended  and 
decay  has  begun,  is,  under  its  broadest  aspect,  the  incidence 
of  a  new  external  motion;  and  when,  as  sometimes  happens, 
the  conquered  society  is  dispersed,  its  dissolution  is  literally 
a  cessation  of  those  corporate  movements  which  the  society, 
both  in  its  army  and  in  its  industrial  bodies,  presented, 
and  a  lapse  into  individual  or  uncombined  movements — 
the  motion  of  units  replaces  the  motion  of  masses. 

It  cannot  be  questioned,  either,  that  when  plague  or 
famine  at  home,  or  a  revolution  abroad,  gives  to  any  society 
an  unusual  shock  that  causes  disorder,  or  incipient  dissolu- 
tion, there  results  a  decrease  of  integrated  movements  and 
an  increase  of  disintegrated  movements.     As  the  disorder 
progresses,  the  political  actions  previously  combined  under 
one  government  become  uncombined:  there  arise  the  an- 
tagonistic actions  of  riot  or  revolt.     Simultaneously,  the  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  processes  that  were  co-ordinated 
throughout  the  whole  body  politic,  are  broken  up;  and  only 
the  local,  or  small,  trading  transactions  continue.    And  each 
further  disorganizing  change  diminishes  the  joint  opera- 
tions by  which  men  satisfy  their  wants,  and  leaves  them  to 
satisfy  their  wants,  so  far  as  they  can,  by  separate  opera- 
tions. Of  the  way  in  which  such  disintegrations 
are  liable  to  be  set  up  in  a  society  that  has  evolved  to  the 
limit  of  its  type,  and  reached  a  state  of  moving  equilibrium, 
a  good  illustration  is  furnished  by  Japan.     The  finished 
fabric  into  which  its  people  had  organized  themselves,  main- 
tained an  almost  constant  state  so  long  as  it  was  preserved 
from  fresh  external  forces.     But  as  soon  as  it  received  an 
impact  from  European  civilization,  partly  by  armed  aggres- 
sion, partly  by  commercial  impulse,  partly  by  the  influence 


534  DISSOLUTION. 

of  ideas,  this  fabric  began  to  fall  to  pieces.  There  is  now  in 
progress  a  political  dissolution.  Probably  a  political  re- 
organization will  follow;  but,  be  this  as  it  may,  the  change 
thus  far  produced  by  an  outer  action  is  a  change  towards 
dissolution — a  change  from  integrated  motions  to  disinte- 
grated motions. 

Even  where  a  society  that  has  developed  into  the  highest 
form  permitted  by  the  characters  of  its  units,  begins  there- 
after to  dwindle  and  decay,  the  progressive  dissolution  is 
still  essentially  of  the  same  nature.  Decline  of  numbers  is, 
in  such  case,  brought  about  partly  by  emigration;  for  a 
society  having  the  fixed  structure  in  which  evolution  ends, 
is  necessarily  one  that  will  not  yield  and  modify  under 
pressure  of  population:  so  long  as  its  structure  will  yield 
and  modify,  it  is  still  evolving.  Hence  the  surplus  popula- 
tion continually  produced,  not  held  together  by  an  organiza- 
tion that  adapts  itself  to  an  augmenting  number,  is  contin- 
ually dispersed:  the  influences  brought  to  bear  on  the  citi- 
zens by  other  societies,  cause  their  detachment,  and  there  is 
an  increase  in  the  uncombined  motions  of  units  instead  of  an 
increase  of  combined  motions.  Gradually  as  rigidity  be- 
comes greater,  and  the  society  becomes  still  less  capable  of 
being  re-moulded  into  the  form  required  for  successful 
competition  with  growing  and  more  plastic  societies,  the 
number  of  citizens  who  can  live  within  its  unyielding  frame- 
work becomes  positively  smaller.  Hence  it  dwindles  both 
through  continued  emigration  and  through  the  diminished 
multiplication  that  follows  innutrition.  And  this  further 
dwindling  or  dissolution,  caused  by  the  number  of  those 
who  die  becoming  greater  than  the  number  of  those  who 
survive  long  enough  to  rear  offspring,  is  similarly  a  decrease 
in  the  total  quantity  of  combined  motion  and  an  increase 
in  the  quantity  of  uncombined  motion — as  we  shall  pres- 
ently see  when  we  come  to  deal  with  individual  dissolution. 

Considering,  then,  that  social  aggregates  differ  so  much 
from  aggregates  of  other  kinds,  formed  as  they  are  of  units 


DISSOLUTION.  535 

held  together  loosely  and  indirectly,  in  such  variable  ways 
by  such  complex  forces,  the  process  of  dissolution  among 
them  conforms  to  the  general  law  quite  as  clearly  as  could 
be  expected. 

§  179.  When  from  these  super-organic  aggregates  we 
descend  to  organic  aggregates,  the  truth  that  Dissolution  is 
a  disintegration  of  matter,  caused  by  the  reception  of  ad- 
ditional motion  from  without,  becomes  easily  demonstrable. 
We  will  look  first  at  the  transformation  and  afterwards  at 
its  cause. 

Death,  or  that  final  equilibration  which  precedes  dissolu- 
tion, is  the  bringing  to  a  close  of  all  those  conspicuous 
integrated  motions  that  arose  during  evolution.  The  im- 
pulsions of  the  body  from  place  to  place  first  cease;  pres- 
ently the  limbs  cannot  be  stirred;  later  still  the  respira- 
tory actions  stop ;  finally  the  heart  becomes  stationary,  and, 
with  it,  the  circulating  fluids.  That  is,  the  transformation 
of  molecular  motion  into  the  motion  of  masses,  comes  to 
an  end;  and  each  of  these  motions  of  masses,  as  it  ends, 
disappears  into  molecular  motions.  What  next  takes  place  ? 
We  cannot  say  that  there  is  any  further  transformation  of 
sensible  movements  into  insensible  movements;  for  sensible 
movements  no  longer  exist.  Nevertheless,  the  process  of 
decay  involves  an  increase  of  insensible  movements;  since 
these  are  far  greater  in  the  gases  generated  by  decomposi- 
tion, than  they  are  in  the  fluid-solid  matters  out  of  which  the 
gases  arise.  Each  of  the  complex  chemical  units  composing 
an  organic  body,  possesses  a  rhythmic  motion  in  which  its 
many  component  units  jointly  partake.  When  decomposi- 
tion breaks  up  these  complex  molecules,  and  their  constitu- 
ents assume  gaseous  forms,  there  is,  besides  that  increase  of 
motion  implied  by  the  diffusion,  a  resolution  of  such  mo- 
tions as  the  aggregate  molecules  possessed,  into  motions 
of  their  constituent  molecules.  So  that  in  organic  dissolu- 
tion we  have,  first,  an  end  put  to  that  transformation  of  the 


536  DISSOLUTION. 

motion  of  units  into  the  motion  of  aggregates,  which  con- 
stitutes evolution,  dynamically  considered;  and  we  have 
also,  though  in  a  subtler  sense,  a  transformation  of  the 
motion  of  aggregates  into  the  motion  of  units.  Still  it  is 
not  thus  shown  that  organic  dissolution  fully  answers  to  the 
general  definition  of  dissolution — the  absorption  of  motion 
and  concomitant  disintegration  of  matter.  The  disintegra- 
tion of  matter  is,  indeed,  conspicuous  enough;  but  the  ab- 
sorption of  motion  is  not  conspicuous.  True,  the  fact  that 
motion  has  been  absorbed  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact 
that  the  particles  previously  integrated  into  a  solid  mass, 
occupying  a  small  space,  have  most  of  them  moved  away 
from  one  another  and  now  occupy  a  great  space;  for  the 
motion  implied  by  this  transposition  must  have  been  ob- 
tained from  somewhere.  But  its  source  is  not  obvious.  A 
little  search,  however,  will  bring  us  to  its  derivation. 

At  a  temperature  below  the  freezing  point  of  water,  de- 
composition of  organic  matter  does  not  take  place — the 
integrated  motions  of  the  highly  integrated  molecules  are 
not  resolved  into  the  disintegrated  motions  of  their  com- 
ponent molecules.  Dead  bodies  kept  at  this  temperature 
for  an  indefinitely  long  period,  are  prevented  from  decom- 
posing for  an  indefinitely  long  period:  witness  the  frozen 
carcases  of  Mammoths — Elephants  of  a  species  long  ago 
extinct — that  are  found  imbedded  in  the  ice  at  the  mouths 
of  Siberian  rivers;  and  which,  though  they  have  been  there 
for  many  thousands  of  years,  have  flesh  so  fresh  that  when 
at  length  exposed,  it  is  devoured  by  wolves.  AVliat  now  is 
the  meaning  of  such  exceptional  preservations?  A  body 
kept  below  freezing  point,  is  a  body  which  receives  very 
little  heat  by  radiation  or  conduction;  and  the  reception  of 
but  little  heat  is  the  reception  of  but  little  molecular  motion. 
That  is  to  say,  in  an  environment  which  does  not  furnish  it 
with  molecular  motion  passing  a  certain  amount,  an  organic 
body  does  not  undergo  dissolution.  Confirmatory 

evidence  is  yielded  by  the  variations  in  rate  of  dissolution 


DISSOLUTION.  537 

which  accompany  variations  of  temperature.  All  know  that 
in  cool  weather  the  organic  substances  used  in  our  house- 
holds keep  longer,  as  we  say,  than  in  hot  weather.  Equally 
certain,  if  less  familiar,  is  the  fact  that  in  tropical  climates 
decay  proceeds  much  more  rapidly  than  in  temperate  cli- 
mates. Thus,  in  proportion  as  the  molecular  motion  of 
surrounding  matter  is  great,  the  dead  organism  receives  an 
abundant  supply  of  motion  to  replace  the  motion  continually 
taken  up  by  the  dispersing  molecules  of  the  gases  into 
which  it  is  being  disintegrated.  The  still  quicker 

decompositions  produced  by  exposure  to  artificially-raised 
temperatures,  afford  further  proofs ;  as  instance  those  which 
occur  in  cooking.  The  charred  surfaces  of  parts  that  have 
been  much  heated,  show  us  that  the  molecular  motion  ab- 
sorbed has  served  to  dissipate  in  gaseous  forms  all  the  ele- 
ments but  the  carbon. 

The  nature  and  cause  of  Dissolution  are  thus  clearly  dis- 
played by  the  aggregates  which  so  clearly  display  the  na- 
ture and  cause  of  Evolution.  One  of  these  aggregates  being 
composed  of  that  peculiar  matter  to  which  a  large  quantity 
of  constitutional  motion  gives  great  plasticity,  and  the  abil- 
ity to  evolve  into  a  highly  compound  form  (§  103);  we  see 
that  after  evolution  has  ceased,  a  very  moderate  amount 
of  molecular  motion,  added  to  that  already  locked  up  in 
its  peculiar  matter,  suffices  to  cause  dissolution.  Though 
at  death  there  is  reached  a  stable  equilibrium  among  the 
sensible  masses,  or  organs,  which  make  up  the  body;  yet, 
as  the  insensible  units  or  molecules  of  which  these  organs 
consist  are  in  unstable  equilibrium,  small  incident  forces 
suffice  to  overthrow  them,  and  hence  disintegration  pro- 
ceeds rapidly. 

§  180.  Most  inorganic   aggregates,   having  arrived  at 

dense  forms  in  which  comparatively  little  motion  is  retained, 

remain  long  without  marked  changes.     Each  has  lost  so 

much  motion  in  passing  from  the  disintegrated  to  the  inte- 

36 


538  DISSOLUTION. 

grated  state,  that  much  motion  must  be  given  to  it  to 
cause  resumption  of  the  disintegrated  state;  and  an  im- 
mense time  may  elapse  before  there  occur  in  the  environ- 
ment, changes  great  enough  to  communicate  to  it  the  requi- 
site quantity  of  motion.  AVe  will  look  first  at  those  excep- 
tional inorganic  aggregates  which  retain  much  motion,  and 
therefore  readily  undergo  dissolution. 

Among  these  are  the  liquids  and  volatile  solids  which 
dissipate  under  ordinary  conditions — water  that  evaporates, 
carbonate  of  ammonia  that  wastes  away  by  the  dispersion  of 
its  molecules.  In  all  such  cases  motion  is  absorbed;  and 
always  the  dissolution  is  rapid  in  proportion  as  the  quantity 
of  heat  or  motion  which  the  aggregated  mass  receives  from 
its  environment  is  great.  Xext  come  the  cases  in 

which  the  molecules  of  a  highly  integrated  or  solid  aggre- 
gate, are  dispersed  among  the  molecules  of  a  less  integrated 
or  liquid  aggregate ;  as  in  aqueous  solutions.  One  evidence 
that  this  disintegration  of  matter  has  for  its  concomitant 
the  absorption  of  motion,  is  that  soluble  substances  dissolve 
the  more  quickly  the  hotter  the  water:  supposing  always 
that  no  elective  affinity  comes  into  play.  Another  and  still 
more  conclusive  evidence  is,  that  when  crystals  of  a  given 
temperature  are  placed  in  water  of  the  same  temperature, 
the  process  of  solution  is  accompanied  by  a  fall  of  tempera- 
ture— often  a  very  great  one.  Omitting  instances  in  which 
some  chemical  action  takes  place  between  the  salt  and  the 
water,  it  is  a  uniform  law  that  the  motion  which  disperses 
the  molecules  of  the  salt  through  the  water,  is  at  the  expense 
of  the  molecular  motion  possessed  by  the  water. 

Masses  of  sediment  accumulated  into  strata,  afterwards 
compressed  by  many  thousands  of  feet  of  superincumbent 
strata,  and  reduced  in  course  of  time  to  a  solid  state, 
may  remain  for  millions  of  years  unchanged;  but  in  sub- 
sequent millions  of  years  they  are  inevitably  exposed  to 
disintegrating  actions.  Raised  along  with  other  such  masses 
into  a  continent,  denuded  and  exposed  to  rain,  frost,  and 


DISSOLUTION.  539 

the  grinding  actions  of  glaciers,  they  have  their  particles 
gradually  separated,  carried  away,  and  widely  dispersed. 
Or  when,  as  otherwise  happens,  the  encroaching  sea  reaches 
them,  the  undermined  cliffs  which  they  form  fall  from  time 
to  time,  breaking  into  fragments  of  all  sizes;  the  waves, 
rolling  about  the  small  pieces,  and  in  storms  turning  over 
and  knocking  together  the  larger  blocks,  reduce  them  to 
boulders  and  pebbles,  and  at  last  to  sand  and  mud.  Even  if 
portions  of  the  disintegrated  strata  accumulate  into  shingle 
banks,  which  afterwards  become  solidified,  the  process  of 
dissolution,  arrested  though  it  may  be  for  some  enormous 
geologic  period,  is  finally  resumed.  As  many  a  shore  shows 
us,  the  conglomerate  itself  is  sooner  or  later  subject  to  the 
like  processes;  and  its  cemented  masses  of  heterogeneous 
components,  lying  on  the  beach,  are  broken  up  and  worn 
away  by  impact  and  attrition — that  is,  by  communicated 
mechanical  motion. 

When  not  thus  affected,  the  disintegration  is  effected  by 
communicated  molecular  motion.  The  consolidated  stra- 
tum, located  in  some  area  of  subsidence,  and  brought  down 
nearer  and  nearer  to  the  regions  occupied  by  molten  matter, 
comes  eventually  to  have  its  particles  brought  to  a  plastic 
state  by  heat,  or  finally  melted  down  into  liquid.  Whatever 
may  be  its  subsequent  transformations,  the  transformation 
then  exhibited  by  it  is  an  absorption  of  motion  and  disinte- 
gration of  matter. 

Be  it  simple  or  compound,  small  or  large,  a  crystal  or  a 
mountain  chain,  every  inorganic  aggregate  on  the  Earth, 
thus,  at  some  time  or  other,  undergoes  a  reversal  of  those 
changes  undergone  during  its  evolution.  Not  that  it  usually 
passes  back  completely  from  the  perceptible  into  the  imper- 
ceptible; as  organic  aggregates  do  in  great  part,  if  not 
wholly.  But  still  its  disintegration  and  dispersion  carry 
it  some  distance  on  the  way  towards  the  imperceptible ;  and 
there  are  reasons  for  thinking  that  its  arrival  there  is  but 
delayed.     At  a  period  immeasurably  remote,  every  such 


540  DISSOLUTION. 

inorganic  aggregate,  along  with  all  undissipated  remnants 
of  organic  aggregates,  must  be  reduced  to  a  state 
of  gaseous  diffusion,  and  so  complete  the  cycle  of  its 
changes. 

§  181.  For  the  Earth  as  a  whole,  when  it  has  gone 
through  the  entire  series  of  its  ascending  transformations, 
must  remain,  like  all  smaller  aggregates,  exposed  to  the 
contingencies  of  its  environment ;  and  in  the  course  of  those 
ceaseless  changes  in  progress  throughout  a  Universe  of 
which  all  parts  are  in  motion,  must,  at  some  period  be- 
yond the  utmost  stretch  of  imagination,  be  subject  to  forces 
sufficient  to  cause  its  complete  disintegration.  Let  us  glance 
at  the  forces  competent  to  disintegrate  it. 

In  his  essay  on  "  The  Inter-action  of  Xatural  Forces," 
Prof.  Helmholtz  states  the  thermal  equivalent  of  the  Earth's 
movement  through  space,  as  calculated  on  the  now  received 
datum  of  Mr.  Joule.  "  If  our  Earth,"  he  says,  "  were  by  a 
sudden  shock  brought  to  rest  in  her  orbit, — which  is  not  to 
be  feared  in  the  existing  arrangement  of  our  system — by 
such  a  shock  a  quantity  of  heat  would  be  generated  equal 
to  that  produced  by  the  combustion  of  fourteen  such  Earths 
of  solid  coal.  Making  the  most  unfavourable  assumption 
as  to  its  capacity  for  heat,  that  is,  placing  it  equal  to  that 
of  water,  the  mass  of  the  Earth  would  thereby  be  heated 
11,200  degrees;  it  would  therefore  be  quite  fused,  and  for 
the  most  part  reduced  to  vapour.  If  then  the  Earth,  after 
having  been  thus  brought  to  rest,  should  fall  into  the 
Sun,  which  of  course  would  be  the  case,  the  quan- 
tity of  heat  developed  by  the  shock  would  be  400  times 
greater."  Now  though  this  calculation  seems  to 

be  nothing  to  the  purpose,  since  the  Earth  is  not  likely 
to  be  suddenly  arrested  in  its  orbit  and  not  likely  there- 
fore suddenly  to  fall  into  the  Sun;  yet,  as  before  pointed 
out  (§  171),  there  is  a  force  at  work  which  it  is  held  must 
at  last  bring  the  Earth  into  the  Sun.     This  force  is  the  re- 


DISSOLUTION.  541 

sistance  of  the  ethereal  medium.  From  ethereal  resistance 
is  inferred  a  retardation  of  all  moving  bodies  in  the  Solar 
System — a  retardation  which  certain  astronomers  contend 
even  now  shows  its  effects  in  the  relative  nearness  to  one 
another  of  the  orbits  of  the  older  planets.  If,  then,  retarda- 
tion is  going  on,  there  must  come  a  time,  no  matter  how 
remote,  when  the  slowly  diminishing  orbit  of  the  Earth  will 
end  in  the  Sun;  and  though  the  quantity  of  molar  motion 
to  be  then  transformed  into  molecular  motion,  will  not  be 
so  great  as  that  which  the  calculation  of  Helmholtz  supposes, 
it  will  be  great  enough  to  reduce  the  substance  of  the  Earth 
to  a  gaseous  state. 

This  dissolution  of  the  Earth,  and,  at  intervals,  of  every 
other  planet,  is  not,  however,  a  dissolution  of  the  Solar 
System.  Viewed  in  their  ensemble,  all  the  changes  ex- 
hibited throughout  the  Solar  System,  are  incidents  accom- 
panying the  integration  of  the  entire  matter  composing  it: 
the  local  integration  of  which  each  planet  is  the  scene, 
completing  itself  long  before  the  general  integration  is 
complete.  But  each  secondary  mass  having  gone  through 
its  evolution  and  reached  a  state  of  equilibrium  among  its 
parts,  thereafter  continues  in  its  extinct  state,  until  by  the 
still  progressing  general  integration  it  is  brought  into  the 
central  mass.  And  though  each  such  union  of  a  secondary 
mass  with  the  central  mass,  implying  transformation  of 
molar  motion  into  molecular  motion,  causes  partial  dif- 
fusion of  the  total  mass  formed,  and  adds  to  the  quantity  of 
motion  that  has  to  be  dispersed  in  the  shape  of  light  and 
heat;  yet  it  does  but  postpone  the  period  at  which  the  total 
mass  must  become  completely  integrated,  and  its  excess  of 
contained  motion  radiated  into  space. 

*  §  182.  Here  we  come  to  the  question  raised  at  the 
close  of  the  last  chapter — does  Evolution  as  a  whole,  like 

*  Though  this  chapter  is  new,  this  section,  and  the  one  following  it,  are 
not  new.     In  the  first  edition  they  were  included  in  the  final  section  of  the 


542  DISSOLUTION. 

Evolution  in  detail,  advance  towards  complete  quiescence? 
Is  that  motionless  state  called  death,  which  ends  Evolution 
in  organic  bodies,  typical  of  the  universal  death  in  which 
Evolution  at  large  must  end  I  And  have  we  thus  to  contem- 
plate as  the  outcome  of  things,  a  boundless  space  holding 
here  and  there  extinct  suns,  fated  to  remain  for  ever  with- 
out further  change? 

To  so  speculative  an  inquiry,  none  but  a  speculative 
answer  is  to  be  expected.  Such  answer  as  may  be  ventured, 
must  be  taken  less  as  a  positive  answer  than  as  a  demurrer 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  proximate  result  must  be  the 
ultimate  result.  If,  pushing  to  its  extreme  the  argument 
that  Evolution  must  come  to  a  close  in  complete  equilibrium 
or  rest,  the  reader  suggests  that  for  aught  which  appears  to 
the  contrary,  the  Universal  Death  thus  implied  will  con- 
tinue indefinitely,  it  is  legitimate  to  point  out  how,  on 
carrying  the  argument  still  further,  we  are  led  to  infer  a 
subsequent  Universal  Life.  Let  us  see  what  may  be  as- 
signed as  grounds  for  inferring  this. 

It  has  been  already  shown  that  all  equilibration,  so  far 
as  we  can  trace  it,  is  relative.  The  dissipation  of  a  body's 
motion  by  communication  of  it  to  surrounding  matter,  solid, 
liquid,  gaseous,  and  ethereal,  brings  the  body  to  a  fixed 
position  in  relation  to  the  matter  that  abstracts  its  motion. 
But  all  its  other  motions  continue.  Further,  this  motion, 
the  disappearance  of  which  causes  relative  equilibration,  is 
not  lost  but  simply  transferred.  ^Whether  it  is  directly 
transformed  into  insensible  motion,  as  happens  in  the  case 
of  the  Sun;  or,  whether,  as  in  the  sensible  motions  going 
on  around  us,  it  is  directly  transformed  into  smaller  sensible 
motions,  and  these  into  still  smaller,  until  they  become  in- 
sensible, matters  not.  In  every  instance  the  ultimate  result 
is,  that  whatever  motion  of  masses  is  lost,  re-appears  as 

foregoing  chapter.  While  substantially  the  same  as  before,  the  argument 
has  been  in  some  places  abbreviated  and  in  other  places  enforced  by  addi- 
tional matter. 


DISSOLUTION.  543 

molecular  motion  pervading  space.  Thus  the  questions  we 
have  to  consider,  are — Whether  after  the  completion  of  all 
the  relative  equilibrations  which  bring  Evolution  to  a  close, 
there  remain  any  further  equilibrations  to  be  effected? — 
Whether  there  are  any  other  motions  of  masses  that  must 
eventually  be  transformed  into  molecular  motion? — And  if 
there  are  such  other  motions,  what  must  be  the  consequence 
when  the  molecular  motion  generated  by  their  transforma- 
tion, is  added  to  that  which  already  exists? 

To  the  first  of  these  questions  the  answer  is,  that  there  do 
remain  motions  which  are  undiminished  by  all  the  relative 
equilibrations  we  have  considered;  namely,  the  motions  of 
translation  possessed  by  those  vast  masses  of  matter  called 
stars — remote  suns  that  are  probably,  like  our  own,  sur- 
rounded by  circling  groups  of  planets.  The  belief  that  the 
stars  are  fixed,  has  long  since  been  abandoned:  observation 
has  proved  many  of  them  to  have  sensible  proper  motions. 
Moreover,  it  has  been  ascertained  by  measurement  that  in 
relation  to  the  stars  nearest  to  us,  our  own  star  travels  at 
the  rate  of  about  half  a  million  miles  per  day;  and  if,  as  is 
admitted  to  be  not  improbable,  our  own  star  is  moving  in 
the  same  direction  with  adjacent  stars,  its  absolute  velocity 
may  be,  and  most  likely  is,  immensely  greater  than  this. 
Now  no  such  changes  as  those  taking  place  within  the  Solar 
System,  even  when  carried  to  the  extent  of  integrating  the 
whole  of  its  matter  into  one  mass,  and  diffusing  all  its 
relative  motions  in  an  insensible  form  through  space,  can 
affect  these  sidereal  motions.  Hence,  there  appears  no  alter- 
native but  to  infer  that  they  must  remain  to  be  equilibrated 
by  some  subsequent  process. 

The  next  question  that  arises  is — To  what  law  do  sidereal 
motions  conform?  And  to  this  question  Astronomy  replies 
— the  law  of  gravitation.  The  movements  of  binary  stars 
have  proved  this.  The  periodic  times  of  sundry  binary  stars 
have  been  calculated  on  the  assumption  that  their  revolu- 
tions are  determined  by  a  force  like  that  which  regulates  the 


544  DISSOLUTION. 

revolutions  of  planets  and  satellites;  and  the  subsequent  per- 
formances of  their  revolutions  in  the  predicted  periods,  have 
verified  the  assumption.  If,  then,  these  remote  bodies  are 
centres  of  gravitation, — if  we  infer  that  all  other  stars  are 
centres  of  gravitation,  as  we  may  fairly  do — and  if  we  draw 
the  unavoidable  corollary,  that  the  gravitative  force  which 
so  conspicuously  affects  stars  that  are  near  one  another, 
also  affects  remote  stars;  we  must  conclude  that  all  the 
members  of  our  Sidereal  System  gravitate,  individually  and 
collectively. 

But  if  these  widely-dispersed  moving  masses  mutually 
gravitate,  what  must  happen '.  There  appears  but  one  ten- 
able answer.  They  cannot  preserve  their  present  arrange- 
ment: the  irregular  distribution  of  our  Sidereal  System 
being  such  as  to  render  even  a  temporary  moving  equi- 
librium impossible.  If  the  stars  are  centres  of  an  attractive 
force  that  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance, 
there  is  no  escape  from  the  inference  that  the  structure  of 
our  galaxy  is  undergoing  change,  and  must  continue  to 
undergo  change. 

Thus,  in  the  absence  of  tenable  alternatives,  we  are 
brought  to  the  positions: — 1,  that  the  stars  are  in  motion; 
— 2,  that  they  move  in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  gravita- 
tion;— 3,  that,  distributed  as  they  are,  they  cannot  move  in 
conformity  with  the  law  of  gravitation,  without  under- 
going re-arrangement.  If  now  we  ask  the  nature  of  this 
re-arrangement,  we  find  ourselves  obliged  to  infer  a  pro- 
gressive concentration.  Stars  at  present  dispersed,  must 
become  locally  aggregated;  existing  aggregations  (except- 
ing, perhaps,  the  globular  clusters)  must  grow  more  dense ; 
and  aggregations  must  coalesce  with  one  another.  That 
integration  has  been  progressing  throughout  past  eras,  we 
found  to  be  indicated  by  the  structure  of  the  heavens,  in 
general  and  in  detail;  and  of  the  extent  to  which  it  has  in 
some  places  already  gone,  remarkable  instances  are  fur- 
nished by  the  Magellanic  clouds — two  closely-packed  ag- 


DISSOLUTION.  545 

glomerations,  not,  indeed,  of  single  stars  only,  but  of  single 
stars,  of  clusters  regular  and  irregular,  of  nebulse,  and  of  dif- 
fused nebulosity.  That  these  have  been  formed  by  mutual 
gravitation  of  parts  once  widely  scattered,  there  is  evidence 
in  the  barrenness  of  the  surrounding  celestial  spaces:  the 
nubecula  minor,  especially,  being  seated,  as  Humboldt  says, 
in  "  a  kind  of  starless  desert." 

What  must  be  the  limit  of  such  concentrations?  The 
mutual  attraction  of  two  stars,  when  it  so  far  predominates 
over  other  attractions  as  to  cause  approximation,  almost 
certainly  ends  in  the  formation  of  a  binary  star;  since  the 
motions  generated  by  other  attractions  prevent  the  two 
stars  from  moving  in  straight  lines  to  their  common  centre 
of  gravity.  Between  small  clusters,  too,  having  also  certain 
proper  motions  as  clusters,  mutual  attraction  may  lead,  not 
to  complete  union,  but  to  the  formation  of  binary  clusters. 
As  the  process  continues,  however,  and  the  clusters  become 
larger,  they  must  move  more  directly  towards  each  other: 
thus  forming  clusters  of  increasing  density.  While,  there- 
fore, during  the  earlier  stages  of  concentration,  the  proba- 
bilities are  immense  against  the  actual  contact  of  these 
mutually-gravitating  masses;  it  is  tolerably  manifest  that, 
as  the  concentration  increases,  collision  must  become  proba- 
ble, and  ultimately  certain.  This  is  an  inference  not  lack- 
ing the  support  of  high  authority.  Sir  John  Herschel, 
treating  of  those  numerous  and  variously-aggregated  clus- 
ters of  stars  revealed  by  the  telescope,  and  citing  with 
apparent  approval  his  father's  opinion,  that  the  more  dif- 
fused and  irregular  of  these,  are  "  globular  clusters  in  a  less 
advanced  state  of  condensation;  "  subsequently  remarks, 
that  "  among  a  crowd  of  solid  bodies  of  whatever  size,  ani- 
mated by  independent  and  partially  opposing  impulses,  mo- 
tions opposite  to  each  other  must  produce  collision,  destruc- 
tion of  velocity,  and  subsidence  or  near  approach  towards 
the  centre  of  preponderant  attraction;  while  those  which 
conspire,  or  which  remain  outstanding  after  such  conflicts, 


546  DISSOLUTION. 

must  ultimately  give  rise  to  circulation  of  a  permanent 
character."  Now  what  is  here  alleged  of  these  minor 
clusters,  cannot  be  denied  of  larger  clusters;  and  thus  the 
above-inferred  process  of  concentration,  appears  certain  to 
bring  about  an  increasingly-frequent  integration  of  masses. 
"We  have  next  to  consider  the  consequences  of  the  accom- 
panying loss  of  velocity.  The  sensible  motion  which  disap- 
pears cannot  be  destroyed,  but  must  be  transformed  into 
insensible  motion.  What  will  be  the  effect  of  this  insensible 
motion?  Already  we  have  seen  that  were  the  Earth  ar- 
rested, dissipation  of  its  substance  would  result.  And  if 
so  relatively  small  a  momentum  as  that  acquired  by  the 
Earth  in  falling  to  the  Sun,  would  be  equivalent  to  a  molecu- 
lar motion  sufficient  to  reduce  the  Earth  to  gases  of  ex- 
treme rarity ;  what  must  be  the  molecular  motion  generated 
by  the  mutually-arrested  momenta  of  two  stars,  that  have 
moved  to  their  common  centre  of  gravity  through  spaces 
immeasurably  greater?  There  seems  no  alternative  but  to 
conclude,  that  it  would  be  great  enough  to  reduce  the 
matter  of  the  stars  to  an  almost  inconceivable  tenuity — a  te- 
nuity like  that  which  we  ascribe  to  nebular  matter.  Such 
being  the  immediate  effect,  what  would  be  the  ulterior  ef- 
fect? Sir  John  Herschel,  in  the  passage  above  quoted,  de- 
scribing the  collisions  that  must  arise  in  a  concentrating 
group  of  stars,  adds  that  those  stars  "  which  remain  out- 
standing after  such  conflicts  ??iust  ultimately  give  rise  to  cir- 
culation of  a  permanent  character."  The  problem,  however, 
is  here  dealt  with  purely  as  a  mechanical  one :  the  assump- 
tion being  that  the  mutually-arrested  masses  will  continue 
as  masses — an  assumption  to  which  no  objection  appeared 
at  the  time  when  Sir  John  Herschel  wrote  this  passage; 
since  the  correlation  of  forces  was  not  then  recognized. 
But  obliged  as  we  now  are  to  conclude,  that  stars  moving 
at  the  high  velocities  acquired  during  concentration,  will, 
by  mutual  arrest,  be  dissipated  into  gases,  the  problem 
becomes  different ;   and  a  different  inference  seems  unavoid- 


DISSOLUTION.  547 

able.  For  the  diffused  matter  produced  by  such  conflicts 
must  form  a  resisting  medium,  occupying  that  central  re- 
gion of  the  cluster  through  which  its  members  from  time 
to  time  pass  in  describing  their  orbits — a  resisting  medium 
which  they  cannot  move  through  without  having  their  ve- 
locities diminished.  Every  additional  collision,  by  augment- 
ing this  resisting  medium,  and  making  the  losses  of  velocity 
greater,  must  aid  in  preventing  the  establishment  of  that 
equilibrium  which  would  else  arise;  and  so  must  conspire 
to  produce  more  frequent  collisions.  And  the  nebulous 
matter  thus  formed,  presently  enveloping  the  whole  cluster, 
must,  by  continuing  to  shorten  the  gyrations  of  the  moving 
masses,  entail  an  increasingly  active  integration  and  re- 
active disintegration  of  them;  until  they  are  all  dis- 
sipated. Whether  this  process  completes  itself  inde- 
pendently in  different  parts  of  our  Sidereal  System;  or 
whether  it  completes  itself  only  by  aggregating  the  whole 
matter  of  our  Sidereal  System;  or  whether,  as  seems  not 
unlikely,  local  integrations  and  disintegrations  run  their 
courses  while  the  general  integration  is  going  on;  are  ques- 
tions that  need  not  be  discussed.  In  any  case  the  conclu- 
sion to  be  drawn  is,  that  the  integration  must  continue  until 
the  conditions  which  bring  about  disintegration  are  reached ; 
and  that  there  must  then  ensue  a  diffusion  that  undoes  the 
preceding  concentration.  This,  indeed,  is  the  con- 
clusion which  presents  itself  as  a  deduction  from  the  persist- 
ence of  force.  If  stars  concentrating  to  a  common  centre  of 
gravity,  eventually  reach  it,  then  the  quantities  of  motion 
they  have  acquired  must  suffice  to  carry  them  away  again  to 
those  remote  regions  whence  they  started.  And  since,  by 
the  conditions  of  the  case,  they  cannot  return  to  these  remote 
regions  in  the  shape  of  concrete  masses,  they  must  return 
in  the  shape  of  diffused  masses.  Action  and  reaction  being 
equal  and  opposite,  the  momentum  producing  dispersion, 
must  be  as  great  as  the  momentum  acquired  by  aggregation; 
and  being  spread  over  the  same  quantity  of  matter,  must 


US  DISSOLUTION. 

cause  an  equivalent  distribution  through  space,  whatever  be 
the  form  of  the  matter.  One  condition,  however, 

essential  to  the  literal  fulfilment  of  this  result,  must  be 
specified;  namely,  that  the  quantity  of  molecular  motion 
radiated  into  space  by  each  star  in  the  course  of  its  forma- 
tion from  diffused  matter,  shall  either  not  escape  from  our 
Sidereal  System  or  shall  be  compensated  by  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  molecular  motion  radiated  from  other  parts  of  space 
into  our  Sidereal  System.  In  other  words,  if  we  set  out 
with  that  amount  of  molecular  motion  implied  by  the  exist- 
ence of  the  matter  of  our  Sidereal  System  in  a  nebulous 
form;  then  it  follows  from  the  persistence  of  force,  that  if 
this  matter  undergoes  the  re-distribution  constituting  Evo- 
lution, the  quantity  of  molecular  motion  given  out  during 
the  integration  of  each  mass,  plus  the  quantity  of  molecular 
motion  given  out  during  the  integration  of  all  the  masses, 
must  suffice  again  to  reduce  it  to  the  same  nebulous  form. 

Here,  indeed,  we  arrive  at  a  barrier  to  our  reasonings; 
since  we  cannot  know  whether  this  condition  is  or  is  not 
fulfilled.  If  the  ether  which  fills  the  interspaces  of  our 
Sidereal  System  has  a  limit  somewhere  beyond  the  outer- 
most stars,  then  it  is  inferrable  that  motion  is  not  lost  by 
radiation  beyond  this  limit;  and  if  so,  the  original  degree 
of  diffusion  may  be  resumed.  Or  supposing  the  ethereal 
medium  to  have  no  such  limit,  yet,  on  the  hypothesis  of  an 
unlimited  space,  containing,  at  certain  intervals,  Sidereal 
Systems  like  our  own,  it  may  be  that  the  quantity  of  molecu- 
lar motions  radiated  into  the  region  occupied  by  our  Sidereal 
System,  is  equal  to  that  which  our  Sidereal  System  radiates ; 
in  which  case  the  quantity  of  motion  possessed  by  it,  re- 
maining undiminished,  it  may  continue  during  unlimited 
time  its  alternate  concentrations  and  diffusions.  But  if,* 
on  the  other  hand,  throughout  boundless  space  filled  with 
ether,  there  exist  no  other  Sidereal  Systems  subject  to  like 
changes,  or  if  such  other  Sidereal  Systems  exist  at  more 
than  a  certain  average  distance  from  one  another;  then  it 


DISSOLUTION.  549 

seems  an  unavoidable  conclusion  that  the  quantity  of  mo- 
tion possessed,  must  diminish  by  radiation;  and  that  so, 
on  each  successive  resumption  of  the  nebulous  form,  the 
matter  of  our  Sidereal  System  will  occupy  a  less  space; 
until  it  reaches  either  a  state  in  which  its  concentrations 
and  diffusions  are  relatively  small,  or  a  state  of  complete 
aggregation  and  rest.  Since,  however,  we  have  no  evidence 
showing  the  existence  or  non-existence  of  Sidereal  Systems 
throughout  remote  space;  and  since,  even  had  we  such  evi- 
dence, a  legitimate  conclusion  could  not  be  drawn  from 
premises  of  which  one  element  (unlimited  space)  is  incon- 
ceivable; we  must  be  for  ever  without  answer  to  this  tran- 
scendent question. 

But  confining  ourselves  to  the  proximate  ^nd  not  neces- 
sarily insoluble  question,  we  find  reason  for  thinking  that 
after  the  completion  of  those  various  equilibrations  which 
bring  to  a  close  all  the  forms  of  Evolution  we  have  contem- 
plated, there  must  continue  an  equilibration  of  a  far  wider 
kind.  When  that  integration  everywhere  in  progress 
throughout  our  Solar  System  has  reached  its  climax,  there 
will  remain  to  be  effected  the  immeasurably  greater  inte- 
gration of  our  Solar  System,  with  other  such  systems. 
There  must  then  re-appear  in  molecular  motion  what  is  lost 
in  the  motion  of  masses;  and  the  inevitable  transformation 
of  this  motion  of  masses  into  molecular  motion,  cannot  take 
place  without  reducing  the  masses  to  a  nebulous  form. 

§  183.  Thus  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
entire  process  of  things,  as  displayed  in  the  aggregate  of 
the  visible  Universe,  is  analogous  to  the  entire  process  of 
things  as  displayed  in  the  smallest  aggregates. 

Motion  as  well  as  Matter  being  fixed  in  quantity,  it 
would  seem  that  the  change  in  the  distribution  of  Matter 
which  Motion  affects,  coming  to  a  limit  in  whichever  direc- 
tion it  is  carried,  the  indestructible  Motion  thereupon  neces- 
sitates a  reverse  distribution.     Apparently,  the  universally- 


550  DISSOLUTION. 

co-existent  forces  of  attraction  and  repulsion,  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  necessitate  rhythm  in  all  minor  changes  through- 
out the  Universe,  also  necessitate  rhythm  in  the  totality  of 
its  changes — produce  now  an  immeasurable  period  during 
which  the  attractive  forces  predominating,  cause  universal 
concentration,  and  then  an  immeasurable  period  during 
winch  the  repulsive  forces  predominating,  cause  universal 
diffusion — alternate  eras  of  Evolution  and  Dissolution. 
And  thus  there  is  suggested  the  conception  of  a  past  during 
which  there  have  been  successive  Evolutions  analogous  to 
that  which  is  now  going  on;  and  a  future  during  which 
successive  other  such  Evolutions  may  go  on — ever  the  same 
in  principle  but  never  the  same  in  concrete  result. 


CHAPTEK  XXIV. 

SUMMARY    AND    CONCLUSION. 

§  184.  At  the  close  of  a  work  like  this,  it  is  more  than 
usually  needful  to  contemplate  as  a  whole  that  which  the 
successive  chapters  have  presented  in  parts.  A  coherent 
knowledge  implies  something  more  than  the  establishment 
of  connexions;  we  must  not  rest  after  seeing  how  each 
minor  group  of  truths  fall  into  its  place  within  some  major 
group,  and  how  all  the  major  groups  fit  together.  It  is 
requisite  that  we  should  retire  a  space,  and,  looking  at  the 
entire  structure  from  a  distance  at  which  details  are  lost  to 
view,  observe  its  general  character. 

Something  more  than  recapitulation — something  more 
even  than  an  organized  re-statement,  will  come  within  the 
scope  of  the  chapter.  We  shall  find  that  in  their  ensemble 
the  general  truths  reached  exhibit,  under  certain  aspects,  a 
oneness  not  hitherto  observed. 

There  is,  too,  a  special  reason  for  noting  how  the  various 
divisions  and  sub-divisions  of  the  argument  consolidate; 
namely,  that  the  theory  at  large  thereby  obtains  a  final 
illustration.  The  reduction  of  the  generalizations  that  have 
been  set  forth  to  a  completely  integrated  state,  exemplifies 
once  more  the  process  of  Evolution,  and  strengthens  still 
further  the  general  fabric  of  conclusions. 

§  185.  Here,  indeed,  we  find  ourselves  brought  round 
unexpectedly,   and  very  significantly,   to  the  truth  with 

551 


552  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION. 

which  we  set  out,  and  with  which  our  re-survey  must  com- 
mence. For  this  integrated  form  of  knowledge  is  the  form 
which,  apart  from  the  doctrine  of  Evolution,  we  decided  to 
be  the  highest  form. 

When  we  inquired  what  constitutes  Philosophy — when 
we  compared  men's  various  conceptions  of  Philosophy,  so 
that,  eliminating  the  elements  in  which  they  differed  we 
might  see  in  what  they  agreed;  we  found  in  them  all,  the 
tacit  implication  that  Philosophy  is  completely  unified 
knowledge.  Apart  from  each  particular  scheme  of  unified 
knowledge,  and  apart  from  the  proposed  methods  by  which 
unification  is  to  be  effected,  we  traced  in  every  case  the  be- 
lief that  unification  is  possible,  and  that  the  end  of  Philoso- 
phy is  the  achievement  of  it. 

Accepting  this  conclusion,  we  went  on  to  consider  the 
data  with  which  Philosophy  must  set  out.  Fundamental 
propositions,  or  propositions  not  deducible  from  deeper  ones, 
can  be  established  only  by  showing  the  complete  congruity 
of  all  the  results  reached  through  the  assumption  of  them; 
and,  premising  that  they  were  assumed  till  so  established, 
we  took  as  our  data,  those  organized  components  of  our  in- 
telligence without  which  there  cannot  go  on  the  mental 
processes  implied  by  philosophizing. 

From  the  specification  of  these  we  passed  to  certain 
primary  truths — "  The  Indestructibility  of  Matter,"  "  The 
Continuity  of  Motion/'  and  "  The  Persistence  of  Force;  " 
of  which  the  last  is  ultimate  and  the  others  derivative. 
Having  previously  seen  that  our  experiences  of  Matter  and 
Motion  are  resolvable  into  experiences  of  Force ;  we  further 
saw  the  truths  that  Matter  and  Motion  are  unchangeable  in 
quantity,  to  be  implications  of  the  truth  that  Force  is  un- 
changeable in  quantity.  This  we  discovered  is  the  truth 
by  derivation  from  which  all  other  truths  are  to  be  proved. 

The  first  of  the  truths  which  presented  itself  to  be  so 
proved,  was  "  The  Persistence  of  the  Relations  among 
Forces."     This,  which  is  ordinarily  called  Uniformity  of 


SUMMARY   AND   CONCLUSION.  553 

Law,  we  found  to  be  a  necessary  implication  of  the  fact  that 
Force  can  neither  arise  out  of  nothing  nor  lapse  into 
nothing. 

The  deduction  next  drawn,  was  that  forces  which  seem 
to  be  lost  are  transformed  into  their  equivalents  of  other 
forces ;  or,  conversely,  that  forces  which  become  manifest,  do 
so  by  disappearance  of  pre-existing  equivalent  forces.  Of 
these  truths  we  found  illustrations  in  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  in  the  changes  going  on  over  the  Earth's 
surface,  and  in  all  organic  and  super-organic  actions. 

It  turned  out  to  be  the  same  with  the  law  that  every- 
thing moves  along  the  line  of  least  resistance,  or  the  line  of 
greatest  traction,  or  their  resultant.  Among  movements  of 
all  orders,  from  those  of  stars  down  to  those  of  nervous  dis- 
charges and  commercial  currents,  it  was  shown  both  that 
this  is  so,  and  that,  given  the  Persistence  of  Force,  it  must 
be  so. 

So,  too,  we  saw  it  to  be  with  "  The  Rhythm  of  Motion." 
All  motion  alternates — be  it  the  motion  of  planets  in  their 
orbits  or  ethereal  molecules  in  their  undulations — be  it  the 
cadences  of  speech  or  the  rises  and  falls  of  prices;  and,  as 
before,  it  became  manifest  that  Force  being  persistent,  this 
perpetual  reversal  of  Motion  between  limits  is  inevitable. 

§  186.  These  truths  holding  of  all  existences,  were 
recognized  as  of  the  kind  required  to  constitute  what  we 
distinguished  as  Philosophy.  But,  on  considering  them,  we 
perceived  that  as  they  stand  they  do  not  form  anything  like 
a  Philosophy;  and  that  a  Philosophy  cannot  be  formed  by 
any  number  of  such  truths  separately  known.  Each  such 
truth  expresses  the  general  law  of  some  one  factor  by  which 
phenomena,  as  we  habitually  experience  them,  are  pro- 
duced; or,  at  most,  expresses  the  law  of  co-operation  of 
some  two  factors.  But  knowing  what  are  the  elements  of  a 
process,  is  not  knowing  how  these  elements  combine  to 
effect  it.  That  which  alone  can  unify  knowledge  must  be 
37 


554  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION. 

the  law  of  co-operation  of  all  the  factors — a  law  expressing 
simultaneously  the  complex  antecedents  and  the  complex 
consequents  which  any  phenomena  as  a  whole  presents. 

A  further  inference  was  that  Philosophy,  as  we  under- 
stand it,  must  not  unify  separate  concrete  phenomena  only ; 
and  must  not  stop  short  with  unifying  separate  classes  of 
concrete  phenomena;  but  must  unify  all  concrete  phenom- 
ena. If  the  law  of  operation  of  each  factor  holds  true 
throughout  the  Cosmos;  so,  too,  must  the  law  of  their  co- 
operation. And  hence  in  comprehending  the  Cosmos  as 
conforming  to  this  law  of  co-operation,  must  consist  that 
highest  unification  which  Philosophy  seeks. 

Descending  from  this  abstract  statement  to  a  concrete 
one,  we  saw  that  the  law  sought  must  be  the  law  of  the 
continuous  re-distribution  of  Matter  and  Motion.  The 
changes  everywhere  going  on,  from  those  which  are  slowly 
altering  the  structure  of  our  galaxy  down  to  those  which 
constitute  a  chemical  decomposition,  are  changes  in  the 
relative  positions  of  component  parts;  and  everywhere  neces- 
sarily imply  that  along  with  a  new  arrangement  of  Matter 
there  has  arisen  a  new  arrangement  of  Motion.  Hence  we 
may  be  certain,  d priori,  that  there  must  be  a  law  of  the 
concomitant  re-distribution  of  Matter  and  Motion,  which 
holds  of  every  change;  and  which,  by  thus  unifying  all 
changes,  must  be  the  basis  of  a  Philosophy. 

In  commencing  our  search  for  this  universal  law  of  re- 
distribution, we  contemplated  from  another  point  of  view 
the  problem  of  Philosophy;  and  saw  that  its  solution  could 
not  but  be  of  the  nature  indicated.  It  was  shown  that  a 
Philosophy  stands  self-convicted  of  inadequacy,  if  it  does 
not  formulate  the  whole  series  of  changes  passed  through 
by  every  existence  in  its  passage  from  the  imperceptible  to 
the  perceptible  and  again  from  the  perceptible  to  the  im- 
perceptible. If  it  begins  its  explanations  with  existences 
that  already  have  concrete  forms,  or  leaves  off  while  they 
still  retain  concrete  forms;  then,  manifestly,  they  had  pre- 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION.  555 

ceding  histories,  or  will  have  succeeding  histories,  or  both, 
of  which  no  account  is  given.  And  as  such  preceding  and 
succeeding  histories  are  subjects  of  possible  knowledge,  a 
Philosophy  which  says  nothing  about  them,  falls  short  of  the 
required  unification.  Whence  we  saw  it  to  follow  that  the 
formula  sought,  equally  applicable  to  existences  taken  sin- 
gly and  in  their  totality,  must  be  applicable  to  the  whole  his- 
tory of  each  and  to  the  whole  history  of  all. 

By  these  considerations  we  were  brought  within  view 
of  the  formula.  For  if  it  had  to  comprehend  the  entire 
progress  from  the  imperceptible  to  the  perceptible  and 
from  the  perceptible  to  the  imperceptible;  and  if  it  was 
also  to  express  the  continuous  re-distribution  of  Matter 
and  Motion;  then,  obviously,  it  could  be  no  other  than  one 
defining  the  opposite  processes  of  concentration  and  diffu- 
sion in  terms  of  Matter  and  Motion.  And  if  so,  it  must  be  a 
statement  of  the  truth  that  the  concentration  of  Matter 
implies  the  dissipation  of  Motion,  and  that,  conversely,  the 
absorption  of  Motion  implies  the  diffusion  of  Matter. 

Such,  in  fact,  we  found  to  be  the  law  of  the  entire  cycle 
of  changes  passed  through  by  every  existence — loss  of  mo- 
tion and  consequent  integration,  eventually  followed  by 
gain  of  motion  and  consequent  disintegration.  And  we  saw 
that  besides  applying  to  the  whole  history  of  each  existence, 
it  applies  to  each  detail  of  the  history.  Both  processes  are 
going  on  at  every  instant;  but  always  there  is  a  differential 
result  in  favour  of  the  first  or  the  second.  And  every 
change,  even  though  it  be  only  a  transposition  of  parts, 
inevitably  advances  the  one  process  or  the  other. 

Evolution  and  Dissolution,  as  we  name  these  opposite 
transformations,  though  thus  truly  defined  in  their  most 
general  characters,  are  but  incompletely  defined;  or  rather, 
while  the  definition  of  Dissolution  is  sufficient,  the  definition 
of  Evolution  is  extremely  insufficient.  Evolution  is  always 
an  integration  of  Matter  and  dissipation  of  Motion;  but  it 
is  in  most  cases  much  more  than  this.     The  primary  re- 


556  SUMMARY  AND   CONCLUSION. 

distribution  of  Matter  and  Motion  is  usually  accompanied 
by  secondary  re-distributions. 

Distinguishing  the  different  kinds  of  Evolution  so  pro- 
duced as  simple  and  compound,  we  went  on  to  consider 
under  what  conditions  the  secondary  re-distributions  which 
make  Evolution  compound,  take  place.  We  found  that  a 
concentrating  aggregate  which  loses  its  contained  motion 
rapidly,  or  integrates  quickly,  exhibits  only  simple  Evolu- 
tion; but  in  proportion  as  its  largeness,  or  the  peculiar  con- 
stitution of  its  components,  hinders  the  dissipation  of  its 
motion,  its  parts,  while  undergoing  that  primary  re-distribu- 
tion which  results  in  integration,  undergo  secondary  re- 
distributions producing  more  or  less  complexity. 

§  187.  From  this  conception  of  Evolution  and  Dissolu- 
tion as  together  making  up  the  entire  process  through  which 
things  pass;  and  from  this  conception  of  Evolution  as 
dividing  into  simple  and  compound ;  we  went  on  to  consider 
the  law  of  Evolution,  as  exhibited  among  all  orders  of 
existences,  in  general  and  in  detail. 

The  integration  of  Matter  and  concomitant  dissipation  of 
Motion,  was  traced  not  in  each  whole  only,  but  in  the  parts 
into  which  each  whole  divides.  By  the  aggregate  Solar 
System,  as  well  as  by  each  planet  and  satellite,  progressive 
concentration  has  been,  and  is  still  being,  exemplified.  In 
each  organism  that  general  incorporation  of  dispersed  ma- 
terials which  causes  growth,  is  accompanied  by  local  in- 
corporations, forming  what  we  call  organs.  Every  society 
while  it  displays  the  aggregative  process  by  its  increasing 
mass  of  population,  displays  it  also  by  the  rise  of  dense 
masses  in  special  parts  of  its  area.  And  in  all  cases,  along 
with  these  direct  integrations  there  go  the  indirect  inte- 
grations by  which  parts  are  made  mutually  dependent. 

From  this  primary  re-distribution  we  were  led  on  to 
consider  the  secondary  re-distributions,  by  inquiring  how 
there  came  to  be  a  formation  of  parts  during  the  formation 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION.  557 

of  a  whole.  It  turned  out  that  there  is  habitually  a  passage 
from  homogeneity  to  heterogeneity,  along  with  the  passage 
from  diffusion  to  concentration.  While  the  matter  com- 
posing the  Solar  System  has  been  assuming  a  denser  form,  it 
has  changed  from  unity  to  variety  of  distribution.  So- 
lidification of  the  Earth  has  been  accompanied  by  a  pro- 
gress from  comparative  uniformity  to  extreme  multiformity. 
In  the  course  of  its  advance  from  a  germ  to  a  mass  of  rela- 
tively great  bulk,  every  plant  and  animal  also  advances  from 
simplicity  to  complexity.  The  increase  of  a  society  in 
numbers  and  consolidation  has  for  its  concomitant  an  in- 
creased heterogeneity  both  of  its  political  and  its  industrial 
organization.  And  the  like  holds  of  all  super-organic  pro- 
ducts— Language,  Science,  Art,  and  Literature. 

But  we  saw  that  these  secondary  re-distributions  are  not 
thus  completely  expressed.  At  the  same  time  that  the  parts 
into  which  each  whole  is  resolved  become  more  unlike  one 
another,  they  also  become  more  sharply  marked  off.  The 
result  of  the  secondary  re-distributions  is  therefore  to  change 
an  indefinite  homogeneity  into  a  definite  heterogeneity. 
This  additional  trait  also  we  found  to  be  traceable  in  evolv- 
ing aggregates  of  all  orders.  Further  consideration,  how- 
ever, made  it  apparent  that  the  increasing  clefiniteness 
which  goes  along  with  increasing  heterogeneity,  is  not  an 
independent  trait;  but  that  it  results  from  the  integration 
which  progresses  in  each  of  the  differentiating  parts,  while 
it  progresses  in  the  whole  they  form. 

Further,  it  was  pointed  out  that  in  all  evolutions, 
inorganic,  organic,  and  super-organic,  this  change  in  the 
arrangement  of  Matter  is  accompanied  by  a  parallel  change 
in  the  arrangement  of  Motion:  every  increase  in  structural 
complexity  involving  a  corresponding  increase  in  func- 
tional complexity.  It  was  shown  that  along  with  the 
integration  of  molecules  into  masses,  there  arises  an  integra- 
tion of  molecular  motion  into  the  motion  of  masses;  and 
that  as  fast  as  there  results  variety  in  the  sizes  and  forms  of 


558  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION. 

aggregates  and  their  relations  to  incident  forces,  there  also 
results  variety  in  their  movements. 

The  transformation  thus  contemplated  under  separate 
aspects,  being  in  itself  but  one  transformation,  it  became 
needful  to  unite  these  separate  aspects  into  a  single  concep- 
tion— to  regard  the  primary  and  secondary  re-distributions 
as  simultaneously  -working  their  various  effects.  Every- 
where the  change  from  a  confused  simplicity  to  a  distinct 
complexity,  in  the  distribution  of  both  matter  and  motion, 
is  incidental  to  the  consolidation  of  the  matter  and  the  loss 
of  its  motion.  Hence  the  re-distribution  of  the  matter  and 
of  its  retained  motion,  is  from  a  diffused,  uniform,  and  in- 
determinate arrangement,  to  a  concentrated,  multiform,  and 
determinate  arrangement. 

§  188.  We  come  now  to  one  of  the  additions  that  may  be 
made  to  the  general  argument  while  summing  it  up.  Here 
is  the  fit  occasion  for  observing  a  higher  degree  of  unity  in 
the  foregoing  inductions,  than  we  observed  while  making 
them. 

The  law  of  Evolution  has  been  thus  far  contemplated  as 
holding  true  of  each  order  of  existences,  considered  as  a 
separate  order.  But  the  induction  as  so  presented,  falls 
short  of  that  completeness  which  it  gains  when  we  con- 
template these  several  orders  of  existences  as  forming 
together  one  natural  whole.  While  we  think  of  Evolution 
as  divided  into  astronomic,  geologic,  biologic,  psychologic, 
sociologic,  &c.,  it  may  seem  to  a  certain  extent  a  coincidence 
that  the  same  law  of  metamorphosis  holds  throughout  all  its 
divisions.  But  when  we  recognize  these  divisions  as  mere 
conventional  groupings,  made  to  facilitate  the  arrangement 
and  acquisition  of  knowledge — when  we  regard  the  different 
existences  with  which  they  severally  deal  as  component 
parts  of  one  Cosmos;  Ave  see  at  once  that  there  are  not 
several  kinds  of  Evolution  having  certain  traits  in  common, 
but  one  Evolution  going  on  everywhere  after  the  same 


SUMMARY  AND   CONCLUSION.  559 

manner.  We  have  repeatedly  observed  that  while  any 
whole  is  evolving,  there  is  always  going  on  an  evolution  of 
the  parts  into  which  it  divides  itself;  but  we  have  not 
observed  that  this  equally  holds  of  the  totality  of  things,  as 
made  up  of  parts  within  parts  from  the  greatest  down  to 
the  smallest.  We  know  that  while  a  physically-cohering 
aggregate  like  the  human  body  is  getting  larger  and  taking 
on  its  general  shape,  each  of  its  organs  is  doing  the  same"; 
that  while  each  organ  is  growing  and  becoming  unlike 
others,  there  is  going  on  a  differentiation  and  integration 
of  its  component  tissues  and  vessels;  and  that  even  the 
components  of  these  components  are  severally  increasing 
and  passing  into  more  definitely  heterogeneous  structures. 
But  we  have  not  duly  remarked  that,  setting  out  with  the 
human  body  as  a  minute  part,  and  ascending  from  it  to 
greater  parts,  this  simultaneity  of  transformation  is  equally 
manifest — that  while  each  individual  is  developing,  the  so- 
ciety of  which  he  is  an  insignificant  unit  is  developing  too; 
that  \vhile  the  aggregate  mass  forming  a  society  is  becom- 
ing more  definitely  heterogeneous,  so  likewise  is  that  total 
aggregate,  the  Earth,  of  which  the  society  is  an  inapprecia- 
ble portion;  that  while  the  Earth,  which  in  bulk  is  not  a 
millionth  of  the  Solar  System,  progresses  towards  its  concen- 
trated and  complex  structure,  the  Solar  System  similarly 
progresses;  and  that  even  its  transformations  are  but  those 
of  a  scarcely  appreciable  portion  of  our  Sidereal  System, 
which  has  at  the  same  time  been  going  through  parallel 
changes. 

So  understood,  Evolution  becomes  not  one  in  principle 
only,  but  one  in  fact.  There  are  not  many  metamorphoses 
similarly  carried  on;  but  there  is  a  single  metamorphosis 
universally  progressing,  wherever  the  reverse  metamorpho- 
sis has  not  set  in.  In  any  locality,  great  or  small,  through- 
out space,  where  the  occupying  matter  acquires  an  apprecia- 
ble individuality,  or  distinguish ableness  from  other  matter, 
there  Evolution  goes  on ;  or  rather,  the  acquirement  of  this 


560  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION. 

appreciable  individuality  is  the  commencement  of  Evolu- 
tion. And  this  holds  uniformly ;  regardless  of  the  size  of  the 
aggregate,  regardless  of  its  inclusion  in  other  aggregates, 
and  regardless  of  the  wider  evolutions  within  which  its  own 
is  comprehended. 

§  189.  After  making  them,  we  saw  that  the  inductions 
which,  taken  together,  establish  the  law  of  Evolution,  do 
not,  so  long  as  they  remained  inductions,  form  coherent 
parts  of  that  whole  rightly  named  Philosophy;  nor  does 
even  the  foregoing  passage  of  these  inductions  from  agree- 
ment into  identity,  suffice  to  produce  the  unity  sought. 
For,  as  was  pointed  out  at  the  time,  to  unify  the  truths 
thus  reached  with  other  truths,  it  is  requisite  to  deduce 
them  from  the  Persistence  of  Force.  Our  next  step, 
therefore,  was  to  show  why,  Force  being  persistent,  the 
transformation  which  Evolution  shows  us  necessarily  re- 
sults. 

The  first  conclusion  arrived  at  was,  that  any,  finite 
homogeneous  aggregate  must  inevitably  lose  its  homoge- 
neity, through  the  unequal  exposure  of  its  parts  to  inci- 
dent forces.  It  was  pointed  out  that  the  production  of 
diversities  of  structure  by  diverse  forces,  and  forces  acting 
under  diverse  conditions,  has  been  illustrated  in  astronomic 
evolution;  and  that  a  like  connection  of  cause  and  effect 
is  seen  in  the  large  and  small  modifications  undergone  by 
our  globe.  The  early  changes  of  organic  germs  supplied 
further  evidence  that  unlikenesses  of  structure  follow  un- 
likenesses  of  relations  to  surrounding  agencies — evidence 
enforced  by  the  tendency  of  the  differently-placed  mem- 
bers of  each  species  to  diverge  into  varieties.  And  we  found 
that  the  contrasts,  political  and  industrial,  which  arise  be- 
tween the  parts  of  societies,  serve  to  illustrate  the  same 
principle.  The  instability  of  the  homogeneous  thus  every- 
where exemplified,  we  also  saw  holds  in  each  of  the  dis- 
tinguishable parts  into  which  any  uniform  whole  lapses; 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION.  561 

and  that  so  the  less  heterogeneous  tends  continually  to  be- 
come more  heterogeneous. 

A  further  step  in  the  inquiry  disclosed  a  secondary  cause 
of  increasing  multiformity.  Every  differentiated  part  is 
not  simply  a  seat  of  further  differentiations,  but  also  a  parent 
of  further  differentiations;  since,  in  growing  unlike  other 
parts,  it  becomes  a  centre  of  unlike  reactions  on  incident 
forces,  and  by  so  adding  to  the  diversity  of  forces  at  work, 
adds  to  the  diversity  of  effects  produced.  This  multiplica- 
tion of  effects  proved  to  be  similarly  traceable  throughout 
all  Nature — in  the  actions  and  reactions  that  go  on  through- 
out the  Solar  System,  in  the  never-ceasing  geologic  com- 
plications, in  the  involved  symptoms  produced  in  organisms 
by  disturbing  influences,  in  the  many  thoughts  and  feelings 
generated  by  single  impressions,  and  in  the  ever-ramifying 
results  of  each  new  agency  brought  to  bear  on  a  society. 
To  which  was  added  the  corollary,  confirmed  by  abundant 
facts,  that  the  multiplication  of  effects  advances  in  a  geo- 
metrical progression  along  with  advancing  heterogeneity. 

Completely  to  interpret  the  structural  changes  constitut- 
ing Evolution,  there  remained  to  assign  a  reason  for  that 
increasingly-distinct  demarcation  of  parts,  which  accompa- 
nies the  production  of  differences  among  parts.  This  reason 
we  discovered  to  be,  the  segregation  of  mixed  units  under 
the  action  of  forces  capable  of  moving  them.  We  saw  that 
when  unlike  incident  forces  have  made  the  parts  of  an 
aggregate  unlike  in  the  natures  of  their  component  units, 
there  necessarily  arises  a  tendency  to  separation  of  the  dis- 
similar units  from  one  another,  and  to  a  clustering  of  those 
units  which  are  similar.  This  cause  of  the  local  integra- 
tions that  accompany  local  differentiations,  turned  out  to 
be  likewise  exemplified  by  all  kinds  of  Evolution — by  the 
formation  of  celestial  bodies,  by  the  moulding  of  the  Earth's 
crust,  by  organic  modifications,  by  the  establishment  of 
mental  distinctions,  by  the  genesis  of  social  divisions. 

At  length,  to  the  query  whether  these  processes  have  any 


562  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION. 

limit,  there  came  the  answer  that  they  must  end  in  equili- 
brium. That  continual  division  and  subdivision  of  forces, 
which  changes  the  uniform  into  the  multiform  and  the 
multiform  into  the  more  multiform,  is  a  process  by  which 
forces  are  perpetually  dissipated;  and  dissipation  of  them, 
continuing  as  long  as  there  remain  any  forces  unbalanced 
by  opposing  forces,  must  end  in  rest.  It  was  shown  that 
when,  as  happens  in  aggregates  of  various  orders,  many 
movements  are  going  on  together,  the  earlier  dispersion 
of  the  smaller  and  more  resisted  movements,  establishes 
moving  equilibria  of  different  kinds:  forming  transitional 
stages  on  the  way  to  complete  equilibrium.  And  further 
inquiry  made  it  apparent  that  for  the  same  reason,  these 
moving  equilibria  have  certain  self -conserving  powers; 
shown  in  the  neutralization  of  perturbations,  and  the  ad- 
justment to  new  conditions.  This  general  principle  of 
equilibration,  like  the  preceding  general  principles,  was 
•traced  throughout  all  forms  of  Evolution — astronomic, 
geologic,  biologic,  mental  and  social.  And  our  concluding 
inference  was,  that  the  penultimate  stage  of  equilibration,  in 
which  the  extremest  multiformity  and  most  complex  mov- 
ing equilibrium  are  established,  must  be  one  implying  the 
highest  conceivable  state  of  humanity. 

But  the  fact  which  it  here  chiefly  concerns  us  to  remem- 
ber, is  that  each  of  these  laws  of  the  re-distribution  of  Mat- 
ter and  Motion,  was  found  to  be  a  derivative  law — a  law  de- 
ducible  from  the  fundamental  law.  The  Persistence  of 
Force  being  granted,  there  follow  as  inevitable  inferences 
"  The  Instability  of  the  Homogeneous  "  and  "  The  Multi- 
plication of  Effects;  "  while  "  Segregation"  and  "  Equili- 
bration "  also  become  corollaries.  And  thus  discovering 
that  the  processes  of  change  formulated  under  these  titles 
are  so  many  different  aspects  of  one  transformation,  deter- 
mined 1  >y  an  ultimate  necessity,  we  arrive  at  a  complete  uni- 
fication of  them — a  synthesis  in  which  Evolution  in  general 
and  in  detail  becomes  known  as  an  implication  of  the  law 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION.  563 

that  transcends  proof.  Moreover,  in  becoming  thus  unified 
with  one  another,  the  complex  truths  of  Evolution  become 
simultaneously  unified  with  those  simpler  truths  shown  to 
have  a  like  affiliation — the  equivalence  of  transformed 
forces,  the  movement  of  every  mass  and  molecule  along  its 
line  of  least  resistance,  and  the  limitation  of  its  motion  by 
rhythm.  Which  further  unification  brings  us  to  a  concep- 
tion of  the  entire  plexus  of  changes  presented  by  each  con- 
crete phenomenon,  and  by  the  aggregate  of  concrete  phe- 
nomena, as  a  manifestation  of  one  fundamental  fact — a  fact 
shown  alike  in  the  total  change  and  in  all  the  separate 
changes  composing  it. 

§  190.  Finally  we  turned  to  contemplate,  as  exhibited 
throughout  Nature,  that  process  of  Dissolution  which  forms 
the  complement  of  Evolution;  and  which  inevitably,,  at 
some  time  or  other,  undoes  what  Evolution  has  done. 

Quickly  following  the  arrest  of  Evolution  in  aggregates 
that  are  unstable,  and  following  it  at  periods  often  long 
delayed  but  reached  at  last  in  the  stable  aggregates  around 
us,  we  saw  that  even  to  the  vast  aggregate  of  which  all 
these  are  parts — even  to  the  Earth  as  a  whole — Dissolution 
must  eventually  arrive.  Nay  we  even  saw  grounds  for  the 
belief  that  the  far  vaster  masses  dispersed  at  almost  im- 
measurable intervals  through  space,  will,  at  a  time  beyond 
the  reach  of  finite  imaginations,  share  the  same  fate;  and 
that  so  universal  Evolution  will  be  followed  by  universal 
Dissolution — a  conclusion  which,  like  those  preceding  it, 
we  saw  to  be  deducible  from  the  Persistence  of  Force. 

It  may  be  added  that  in  so  unifying  the  phenomena  of 
Dissolution  with  those  of  Evolution,  as  being  manifestations 
of  the  same  ultimate  law  under  opposite  conditions,  we  also 
unify  the  phenomena  presented  by  the  existing  Universe 
with  the  like  phenomena  that  have  preceded  them  and  will 
succeed  them — so  far,  at  least,  as  such  unification  is  possible 
to  our  limited  intelligences.     For  if,  as  we  saw  reason  to 


564  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION. 

think,  there  is  an  alternation  of  Evolution  and  Dissolution 
in  the  totality  of  things — if,  as  we  are  obliged  to  infer  from 
the  Persistence  of  Force,  the  arrival  at  either  limit  of  this 
vast  rhythm  brings  about  the  conditions  under  which  a 
counter-movement  commences — if  we  are  hence  compelled 
to  entertain  the  conception  of  Evolutions  that  have  filled 
an  immeasurable  past  and  Evolutions  that  will  fill  an  im- 
measurable future ;  we  can  no  longer  contemplate  the  visible 
creation  as  having  a  definite  beginning  or  end,  or  as  being 
isolated.  It  becomes  unified  with  all  existence  before  and 
after;  and  the  Force  which  the  Universe  presents,  falls  into 
the  same  category  with  its  Space  and  Time,  as  admitting  of 
no  limitation  in  thought. 

§  191.  So  rounding  off  the  argument,  we  find  its  result 
brought  into  complete  coalescence  with  the  conclusion 
reached  in  Part  I.  ;  where,  independently  of  any  inquiry 
like  the  foregoing,  we  dealt  with  the  relations  between  the 
Knowable  and  the  Unknowable. 

It  was  there  shown  by  analysis  of  both  our  religious  and 
our  scientific  ideas,  that  while  knowledge  of  the  cause  which 
produces  effects  on  our  consciousness  is  impossible,  the 
existence  of  a  cause  for  these  effects  is  a  datum  of  con- 
sciousness. We  saw  that  the  belief  in  a  Power  of  which 
no  limit  in  Time  or  Space  can  be  conceived,  is  that  funda- 
mental element  in  Religion  which  survives  all  its  changes 
of  form.  We  saw  that  all  Philosophies  avowedly  or  tacitly 
recognize  this  same  ultimate  truth: — that  while  the  Rela- 
tivist rightly  repudiates  those  definite  assertions  which  the 
Absolutist  makes  respecting  existence  transcending  per- 
ception, he  is  yet  at  last  compelled  to  unite  with  him  in 
predicating  existence  transcending  perception.  And  this 
inexpugnable  consciousness  in  which  Religion  and  Philoso- 
phy are  at  one  with  Common  Sense,  proved  to  be  like- 
wise that  on  which  all  exact  Science  is  based.  We  found 
that  subjective  Science  can  give  no  account  of  those  con- 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION.  565 

ditioned  modes  of  being  which  constitute  consciousness, 
without  postulating  unconditioned  being.  And  we  found 
that  objective  Science  can  give  no  account  of  the  world 
which  we  know  as  external,  without  regarding  its  changes 
of  form  as  manifestations  of  something  that  continues  con- 
stant under  all  forms.  This  is  also  the  implication  to  which 
we  are  now  led  back  by  our  completed  synthesis.  The 
recognition  of  a  persistent  Force,  ever  changing  its  mani- 
festations but  unchanged  in  quantity  throughout  all  past 
time  and  all  future  time,  is  that  which  we  find  alone  makes 
possible  each  concrete  interpretation,  and  at  last  unifies  all 
concrete  interpretations,  Not,  indeed,  that  this  coincidence 
adds  to  the  strength  of  the  argument  as  a  logical  structure. 
Our  synthesis  has  proceeded  by  taking  for  granted  at  every 
step  this  ultimate  truth;  and  the  ultimate  truth  cannot, 
therefore,  be  regarded  as  in  any  sense  an  outcome  of  the 
synthesis.  Nevertheless,  the  coincidence  yields  a  verifica- 
tion. For  when  treating  of  the  data  of  Philosophy,  it  was 
pointed  out  that  we  cannot  take  even  a  first  step  without 
making  assumptions;  and  that  the  only  course  is  to  proceed 
with  them  as  provisional,  until  they  are  proved  true  by  the 
congruity  of  all  the  results  reached.  This  congruity  we 
here  see  to  be  perfect  and  all-embracing — holding  through- 
out that  entire  structure  of  definite  consciousness  of  rela- 
tions which  we  call  Knowledge,  and  harmonizing  with  it 
that  indefinite  consciousness  of  existence  transcending  re- 
lations which  forms  the  essence  of  Religion. 

§  192.  Towards  some  result  of  this  order,  inquiry,  scien- 
tific, metaphysical,  and  theological,  has  been,  and  still  is, 
manifestly  advancing.  The  coalescence  of  polytheistic  con- 
ceptions into  the  monotheistic  conception,  and  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  monotheistic  conception  to  a  more  and  more 
general  form  in  which  personal  superintendence  becomes 
merged  in  universal  immanence,  clearly  shows  this  advance. 
It  is  equally  shown  in  the  fading  away  of  old  theories  about 


5C6  SUMMARY  AND   CONCLUSION. 

"  essences,"  "  potentialities,"  "  occult  virtues,"  &c. ;  in  the 
abandonment  of  such  doctrines  as  those  of  "  Platonic 
Ideas,"  "  Pre-established  Harmonies,"  and  the  like;  and  in 
the  tendency  towards  the  identification  of  Being  as  present 
to  us  in  consciousness,  with  Being  as  otherwise  conditioned 
beyond  consciousness.  Still  more  conspicuous  is  it  in  the 
progress  of  Science;  which,  from  the  beginning  has  been 
grouping  isolated  facts  under  laws,  uniting  special  laws 
under  more  general  laws,  and  so  reaching  on  to  laws  of 
higher  and  higher  generality ;  until  the  conception  of  univer- 
sal laws  has  become  familiar  to  it. 

Unification  being  thus  the  characteristic  of  developing 
thought  of  all  kinds,  and  eventual  arrival  at  unity  being 
fairly  inferable,  there  arises  yet  a  further  support  to  our 
conclusion.  Since,  unless  there  is  some  other  and  higher 
unity,  the  unity  we  have  reached  must  be  that  towards  which 
developing  thought  tends;  and  that  there  is  any  other  and 
higher  unity  is  scarcely  supposable.  Having  grouped  the 
changes  which  all  orders  of  existences  display  into  induc- 
tions; having  merged  these  inductions  into  a  single  induc- 
tion; having  interpreted  this  induction  deductively;  having 
seen  that  the  ultimate  truth  from  which  it  is  deduced  is 
one  transcending  proof;  it  seems,  to  say  the  least,  very  im- 
probable that  there  can  be  established  a  fundamentally 
different  way  of  unifying  that  entire  process  of  things 
which  Philosophy  has  to  interpret.  That  the  foregoing 
accumulated  verifications  are  all  illusive,  or  that  an  opposing 
doctrine  can  show  a  greater  accumulation  of  verifications,  is 
not  easy  to  conceive. 

Let  no  one  suppose  that  any  such  implied  degree  of 
trustworthiness  is  alleged  of  the  various  minor  propositions 
brought  in  illustration  of  the  general  argument.  Such  an 
assumption  would  be  so  manifestly  absurd,  that  it  seems 
scarcely  needful  to  disclaim  it.  But  the  truth  of  the  doctrine 
as  a  whole,  is  unaffected  by  errors  in  the  details  of  its  pre- 
sentation.   If  it  can  be  shown  that  the  Persistence  of  Force 


SUMMARY  AND   CONCLUSION.  567 

is  not  a  datum  of  consciousness;  or  if  it  can  be  shown 
that  the  several  laws  of  force  above  specified  are  not  corol- 
laries from  it;  or  if  it  can  be  shown  that,  given  these  laws, 
the  re-distribution  of  Matter  and  Motion  does  not  neces- 
sarily proceed  as  described;  then,  indeed,  it  will  be  shown 
that  the  theory  of  Evolution  has  not  the  high  warrant  here 
claimed  for  it.  But  nothing  short  of  this  can  shake  the 
general  conclusions  arrived  at. 

§  193.  If  these  conclusions  be  accepted — if  it  be  agreed 
that  the  phenomena  going  on  everywhere  are  parts  of  the 
general  process  of  Evolution,  save  where  they  are  parts  of 
the  reverse  process  of  Dissolution;  then  we  may  infer  that 
all  phenomena  receive  their  complete  interpretation,  only 
when  recognized  as  parts  of  these  processes.  Whence  it 
follows  that  the  limit  towards  which  Knowledge  is  advanc- 
ing, must  be  reached  when  the  formulae  of  these  processes 
are  so  applied  as  to  yield  a  total  and  specific  interpretation 
of  each  phenomenon  in  its  entirety,  as  well  as  of  phenomena 
in  general. 

The  partially-unified  knowledge  distinguished  as  Sci- 
ence, does  not  yet  include  such  total  interpretations.  Either, 
as  in  the  more  complex  sciences,  the  progress  is  almost  ex- 
clusively inductive;  or,  as  in  the  simpler  sciences,  the  de- 
ductions are  concerned  with  the  component  phenomena; 
and  at  present  there  is  scarcely  a  consciousness  that  the 
ultimate  task  is  the  deductive  interpretation  of  phenomena 
in  their  state  of  composition.  The  Abstract  Sciences,  deal- 
ing with  the  forms  under  which  phenomena  are  presented, 
and  the  Abstract-Concrete  Sciences,  dealing  with  the  factors 
by  which  phenomena  are  produced,  are,  philosophically  con- 
sidered, the  handmaids  of  the  Concrete  Sciences,  which 
deal  with  the  produced  phenomena  as  existing  in  all  their 
natural  complexity.  The  laws  of  the  forms  and  the  laws  of 
the  factors  having  been  ascertained,  there  then  comes  the 
business  of  ascertaining  the  laws  of  the  products,  as  deter- 


568  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION. 

mined  by  the  inter-action  of  the  co-operative  factors.  Given 
the  Persistence  of  Force,  and  given  the  various  derivative 
laws  of  Force,  and  there  has  to  be  shown  not  only  how 
the  actual  existences  of  the  inorganic  world  necessarily 
exhibit  the  traits  they  do,  but  how  there  necessarily  result 
the  more  numerous  and  involved  traits  exhibited  by  organic 
and  super-organic  existences — how  an  organism  is  evolved? 
what  is  the  genesis  of  human  intelligence?  whence  social 
progress  arises? 

It  is  evident  that  this  development  of  Knowledge  into 
an  organized  aggregate  of  direct  and  indirect  deductions 
from  the  Persistence  of  Force,  can  be  achieved  only  in  the 
remote  future;  and,  indeed,  cannot  be  completely  achieved 
even  then.  Scientific  progress  is  progress  in  that  equilibra- 
tion of  thought  and  things  which  we  saw  is  going  on,  and 
must  continue  to  go  on;  but  which  cannot  arrive  at  per- 
fection in  any  finite  period.  Still,  though  Science  can  never 
be  entirely  reduced  to  this  form;  and  though  only  at  a  far 
distant  time  can  it  be  brought  nearly  to  this  form;  much 
may  even  now  be  done  in  the  way  of  approximation. 

Of  course,  what  may  now  be  done,  can  be  done  but  very 
imperfectly  by  any  single  individual.  'No  one  can  possess 
that  encyclopedic  information  required  for  rightly  organiz- 
ing even  the  truths  already  established.  Nevertheless  as  pro- 
gress is  effected  by  increments — as  all  organization,  begin- 
ning in  faint  and  blurred  outlines,  is  completed  by  successive 
modifications  and  additions;  advantage  may  accrue  from  an 
attempt,  however  rude,  to  reduce  the  facts  now  accumulated 
— or  rather  certain  classes  of  them — to  something  like  co- 
ordination. Such  must  be  the  plea  for  the  several  volumes 
which  are  to  succeed  this ;  dealing  with  the  respective  divis- 
ions of  what  we  distinguished  at  the  outset  as  Special  Phi- 
losophy. 

§  194.  A  few  closing  words  must  be  said,  concerning 
the  general  bearings  of  the  doctrines  that  are  now  to  be  fur- 


SUMMARY  AND   CONCLUSION.  569 

tlier  developed.  Before  proceeding  to  interpret  the  detailed 
phenomena  of  Life,  and  Mind,  and  Society,  in  terms  of 
Matter,  Motion,  and  Force,  the  reader  must  be  reminded  in 
what  sense  the  interpretations  are  to  be  accepted. 

It  is  true  that  their  purely  relative  character  has  been  re- 
peatedly insisted  upon ;  but  the  liability  to  misinterpretation 
is  so  great,  that  notwithstanding  all  evidence  to  the  contrary, 
there  will  probably  have  arisen  in  not  a  few  minds,  the  con- 
viction that  the  solutions  which  have  been  given,  along  with 
those  to  be  derived  from  them,  are  essentially  materialistic. 
Having,  throughout  life,  constantly  heard  the  charge  of 
materialism  made  against  those  who  ascribed  the  more  in- 
volved phenomena  to  agencies  like  those  which  produce  the 
simplest  phenomena,  most  persons  have  acquired  repug- 
nance to  such  modes  of  interpretation ;  and  the  universal  ap- 
plication of  them,  even  though  it  is  premised  that  the  solu- 
tions they  give  can  be  but  relative,  will  probably  rouse  more 
or  less  of  the  habitual  feeling.  Such  an  attitude  of  mind, 
however,  is  significant,  not  so  much  of  a  reverence  for  the 
Unknown  Cause,  as  of  an  irreverence  for  those  familiar 
forms  in  which  the  Unknown  Cause  is  manifested  to  us. 
Men  who  have  not  risen  above  that  vulgar  conception  which 
unites  with  Matter  the  contemptuous  epithets  "  gross " 
and  "  brute,"  may  naturally  feel  dismay  at  the  proposal  to 
reduce  the  phenomena  of  Life,  of  Mind,  and  of  Society,  to  a 
level  with  those  which  they  think  so  degraded.  But  who- 
ever remembers  that  the  forms  of  existence  which  the  un- 
cultivated speak  of  with  so  much  scorn,  are  shown  by  the 
man  of  science  to  be  the  more  marvellous  in  their  attributes 
the  more  they  are  investigated,  and  are  also  proved  to  be 
in  their  ultimate  natures  absolutely  incomprehensible — 
as  absolutely  incomprehensible  as  sensation,  or  the  conscious 
something  which  perceives  it — whoever  clearly  recog- 
nizes this  truth,  will  see  that  the  course  proposed  does  not 
imply  a  degradation  of  the  so-called  higher,  but  an  eleva- 
tion of  the  so-called  lower.  Perceiving  as  he  will,  that 
38 


570  SUMMARY   AND   CONCLUSION. 

the  Materialist  and  Spiritualist  controversy  is  a  mere  war  of 
words,  in  which  the  disputants  are  equally  absurd — each 
thinking  he  understands  that  which  it  is  impossible  for  any 
man  to  understand — he  will  perceive  how  utterly  groundless 
is  the  fear  referred  to.  Being  fully  convinced  that  whatever 
nomenclature  is  used,  the  ultimate  mystery  must  remain  the 
same,  he  will  be  as  ready  to  formulate  all  phenomena  in 
terms  of  Matter,  Motion,  and  Force,  as  in  any  other  terms; 
and  will  rather  indeed  anticipate,  that  only  in  a  doctrine 
which  recognizes  the  Unknown  Cause  as  co-extensive  with 
all  orders  of  phenomena,  can  there  be  a  consistent  Religion, 
or  a  consistent  Philosophy. 

Though  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  misrepresentations, 
especially  when  the  questions  involved  are  of  a  kind  that  ex- 
cite so  much  animus,  yet  to  guard  against  them  as  far  as  may 
be,  it  will  be  well  to  make  a  succinct  and  emphatic  re-state- 
ment of  the  Philosophico-Religious  doctrine  which  per- 
vades the  foregoing  pages.  Over  and  over  again  it  has 
been  shown  in  various  ways,  that  the  deepest  truths  we  can 
reach,  are  simply  statements  of  the  widest  uniformities  in 
our  experience  of  the  relations  of  Matter,  Motion,  and 
Force;  and  that  Matter,  Motion,  and  Force  are  but  symbols 
of  the  Unknown  Reality.  A  Power  of  which  the  nature  re- 
mains for  ever  inconceivable,  and  to  which  no  limits  in  Time 
or  Space  can  be  imagined,  works  in  us  certain  effects. 
These  effects  have  certain  likenesses  of  kind,  the  most 
general  of  which  we  class  together  under  the  names  of 
Matter,  Motion,  and  Force;  and  between  these  effects  there 
are  likenesses  of  connection,  the  most  constant  of  which  we 
class  as  laws  of  the  highest  certainty.  Analysis  reduces 
these  several  kinds  of  effect  to  one  kind  of  effect;  and  these 
several  kinds  of  uniformity  to  one  kind  of  uniformity.  And 
the  highest  achievement  of  Science  is  the  interpretation  of 
all  orders  of  phenomena,  as  differently-conditioned  manifes- 
tations of  this  one  kind  of  effect,  under  differently-condi- 
tioned modes  of  this  one  kind  of  uniformitv.     But  when 


SUMMARY  AND   CONCLUSION.  571 

Science  has  done  this,  it  has  done  nothing  more  than  sys- 
tematize our  experience;  and  has  in  no  degree  extended 
the  limits  of  our  experience.  We  can  say  no  more  than  be- 
fore, whether  the  uniformities  are  as  absolutely  necessary, 
as  they  have  become  to  our  thought  relatively  necessary. 
The  utmost  possibility  for  us,  is  an  interpetation  of  the 
process  of  things  as  it  presents  itself  to  our  limited 
consciousness;  but  how  this  process  is  related  to  the 
actual  process  we  are  unable  to  conceive,  much  less  to 
know.  Similarly,  it  must  be  remembered  that 

while  the  connection  between  the  phenomenal  order  and 
the  ontological  order  is  for  ever  inscrutable;  so  is  the  con- 
nection between  the  conditioned  forms  of  being  and  the 
unconditioned  form  of  being  for  ever  inscrutable.  The 
interpretation  of  all  phenomena  in  terms  of  Matter,  Motion, 
and  Force,  is  nothing  more  than  the  reduction  of  our  com- 
plex symbols  of  thought,  to  the  simplest  symbols;  and 
when  the  equation  has  been  brought  to  its  lowest  terms  the 
symbols  remain  symbols  still.  Hence  the  reasonings  con- 
tained in  the  foregoing  pages,  afford  no  support  to  either  of 
the  antagonist  hypotheses  respecting  the  ultimate  nature  of 
things.  Their  implications  are  no  more  materialistic  than 
they  are  spiritualistic;  and  no  more  spiritualistic  than  they 
are  materialistic.  Any  argument  which  is  apparently  fur- 
nished to  either  hypothesis,  is  neutralized  by  as  good  an 
argument  furnished  to  the  other.  The  Materialist,  seeing 
it  to  be  a  necessary  deduction  from  the  law  of  correlation, 
that  what  exists  in  consciousness  under  the  form  of  feeling, 
is  transformable  into  an  equivalent  of  mechanical  motion, 
and  by  consequence  into  equivalents  of  all  the  other  forces 
which  matter  exhibits;  may  consider  it  therefore  demon- 
strated that  the  phenomena  of  consciousness  are  material 
phenomena.  But  the  Spiritualist,  setting  out  with  the  same 
data,  may  argue  with  equal  cogency,  that  if  the  forces 
displayed  by  matter  are  cognizable  only  under  the  shape  of 
those  equivalent  amounts  of  consciousness  which  they  pro- 


572  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION. 

duce,  it  is  to  be  inferred  that  these  forces,  when  existing 
out  of  consciousness,  are  of  the  same  intrinsic  nature  as 
when  existing  in  consciousness;  and  that  so  is  justified  the 
spiritualistic  conception  of  the  external  world,  as  consisting 
of  something  essentially  identical  with  what  we  call  mind. 
Manifestly,  the  establishment  of  correlation  and  equivalence 
between  the  forces  of  the  outer  and  the  inner  worlds,  may 
be  used  to  assimilate  either  to  the  other;  according  as  we 
set  out  with  one  or  other  term.  But  he  who  rightly  inter- 
prets the  doctrine  contained  in  this  work,  will  see  that 
neither  of  these  terms  can  be  taken  as  ultimate.  He  will 
see  that  though  the  relation  of  subject  and  object  renders 
necessary  to  us  these  antithetical  conceptions  of  Spirit  and 
Matter;  the  one  is  no  less  than  the  other  to  be  regarded  as 
but  a  sign  of  the  Unknown  Eeality  which  underlies  both. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX, 

DEALING    WITH    CERTAIN    CRITICISMS. 

One  way  of  estimating  the  validity  of  a  critic's  judgments,  is 
that  of  studying  his  mental  peculiarities  as  generally  displayed. 
If  he  betrays  idiosyncrasies  of  thought  in  his  writings  at  large, 
it  may  be  inferred  that  these  idiosyncrasies  possibly,  if  not 
probably,  give  a  character  to  the  verdicts  he  passes  upon  the 
productions  of  others.  I  am  led  to  make  this  remark  by  con- 
sidering the  probable  connexion  between  Professor  Tait's 
habit  of  mind  as  otherwise  shown,  and  as  shown  in  the  opinion 
he  has  tacitly  expressed  respecting  the  formula  of  Evolution. 

Daily  carrying  on  experimental  researches,  Professor  Tait 
is  profoundly  impressed  with  the  supreme  value  of  the  experi- 
mental method;  and  has  reached  the  conviction  that  by  it 
alone  can  any  physical  knowledge  be  gained.  Though  he  calls 
the  ultimate  truths  of  physics  "  axioms,"  yet,  not  very  con- 
sistently, he  alleges  that  only  by  observation  and  experiment 
can  these  "  axioms  "  be  known  as  such.  Passing  over  this  in- 
consistency, however,  we  have  here  to  note  the  implied  propo- 
sition that  where  no  observation  or  experiment  is  possible,  no 
physical  truth  can  be  established;  and,  indeed,  that  in  the 
absence  of  any  possibility  of  experiment  or  observation  there 
is  no  basis  for  any  physical  belief  at  all.  Now  The  Unseen 
Universe,  a  work  written  by  him  in  conjunction  with  Professor 
Balfour-Stewart,  contains  an  elaborate  argument  concerning 
the  relations  between  the  Universe  which  is  visible  to  us  and 
an  invisible  Universe.  This  argument,  carried  on  in  pursu- 
ance of  physical  laws  established  by  converse  with  the  Uni- 
verse we  know,  extends  them  to  the  Universe  we  do  not  know : 
the  law  of  the  Conservation  of  Energy,  for  example,  being 
regarded  as  common  to  the  two,  and  the  principle  of  Con- 
tinuity, which  is  traced  among  perceptible  phenomena,  being 
assumed  to  hold  likewise  of  the  imperceptible.  On  the  strength 
of  these  reasonings,  conclusions  are  drawn  which  are  consid- 

575 


576  APPENDIX. 

ered  as  at  least  probable:  support  is  found  for  certain  theo- 
logical beliefs.  Now,  clearly,  the  relation  between  the  seen 
and  the  unseen  Universes  cannot  be  the  subject  of  any  observa- 
tion or  experiment;  since,  by  the  definition  of  it,  one  term 
of  the  relation  is  absent.  If  we  have,  then,  no  warrant  for 
asserting  a  physical  axiom  save  as  a  generalization  of  results 
of  experiments — if,  consequently,  where  no  observation  or 
experiment  is  possible,  reasoning  after  physical  methods  can 
have  no  place;  then  there  can  be  no  basis  for  any  conclusion 
respecting  the  physical  relations  of  the  seen  and  the  unseen 
Universes.  Not  so,  however,  concludes  Professor  Tait.  He 
thinks  that  while  no  validity  can  be  claimed  for  our  judg- 
ments respecting  perceived  forces,  save  as  experimentally  justi- 
fied, some  validity  can  be  claimed  for  our  judgments  respect- 
ing unperceived  forces,  where  no  experimental  justification 
is  possible. 

The  peculiarity  thus  exhibited  in  Professor  Tait's  general 
thinking,  is  exhibited  also  in  some  of  his  thinking  on  those 
special  topics  with  which  he  is  directly  concerned  as  a  Pro- 
fessor of  Physics.  An  instance  was  given  by  Professor  Clerk- 
Maxwell  when  reviewing,  in  Nature  lor  July  3,  1879,  the  new 
edition  (1879)  of  Thomson  and  Tait's  Treatise  on  Natural 
Philosophy.    Professor  Clerk-Maxwell  writes: — 

"  Again  at  p.  222,  the  capacity  of  the  student  is  called  upon  to  accept 
the  following  statement : — 

'  Matter  has  an  innate  power  of  resisting  external  influences,  so  that 
every  body,  as  far  as  it  can,  remains  at  rest  or  moves  uniformly  in  a 
straight  line.' 

Is  it  a  fact  that  '  matter '  has  any  power,  either  innate  or  acquired,  of 
resisting  external  influences  1 " 

And  to  Professor  Clerk-Maxwell's  question  thus  put,  the  an- 
swer of  one  not  having  a  like  mental  peculiarity  with  Professor 
Tait,  must  surely  be — No. 

But  the  most  remarkable  example  of  Professor  Tait's  mode 
of  thought,  as  exhibited  in  his  own  department,  is  contained 
in  a  lecture  which  he  gave  at  Glasgow  when  the  British  Asso- 
ciation last  met  there  (see  Nature  September  21,  1876) — a 
lecture  given  for  the  purpose  of  dispelling  certain  erroneous 
conceptions  of  force  commonly  entertained.  Asking  how  the 
word  force  "  is  to  be  correctly  used  "  he  says : — 

"  Here  we  cannot  but  consult  Newton.  The  sense  in  which  he  uses 
the  word  'force,'  and  therefore  the  sense  in  which  we  must  continue  to 
use  it  if  we  desire  to  avoid  intellectual  confusion,  will  appear  clearly 
from  a  brief  consideration  of  his  simple  statement  of  the  laws  of  motion. 


APPENDIX.  577 

The  first  of  these  laws  is:  Every  body  continues  in  its  state  of  rest  or  of 
uniform  motion  in  a  straight  tine,  except  in  so  far  as  it  is  compelled  by 
7  forces  to  change  that  state.'l, 


Thus  Professor  Tait  quotes,  and  fully  approves,  that  concep- 
tion of  force  which  regards  it  as  something  which  changes 
the  state  of  a  body.  Later  on  in  the  course  of  his  lecture,  after 
variously  setting  forth  his  views  of  how  force  is  rightly  to  be 
conceived,  he  says  "  force  is  the  rate  at  which  an  agent  does 
work  per  unit  of  length."  Now  let  us  compare  these  two 
definitions  of  force.  It  is  first,  on  the  authority  of  .Newton 
emphatically  endorsed,  said  to  be  that  which  changes  the  state 
of  a  body.  Then  it  is  said  to  be  the  rate  at  which  an  agent 
does  work  (doing  work  being  equivalent  to  changing  a  body's 
state).  In  the  one  case,  therefore,  force  itself  is  the  agent 
which  does  the  work  or  changes  the  state;  in  the  other  case, 
force  is  the  rate  at  which  some  other  agent  does  the  work 


or 

changes  the  state.  How  are  these  statements  to  be  reconciled  ? 
Otherwise  put  the  difficulty  stands  thus: — force  is  that  which 
changes  the  state  of  a  body;  force  is  a  rate,  and  a  rate  is  a  re- 
lation (as  between  time  and  distance,  interest  and  capital); 
therefore  a  relation  changes  the  state  of  a  body.  A  relation 
is  no  longer  a  nexus  among  phenomena,  but  becomes  a  pro- 
ducer of  phenomena.  "Whether  Professor  Tait  succeeded  in 
dispelling  "  the  wide-spread  ignorance  as  to  some  of  the  most 
important  elementary  principles  of  physics" — whether  his 
audience  went  away  with  clear  ideas  of  the  "much  abused 
and  misunderstood  term  "  force,  the  report  does  not  tell  us. 

Let  us  pass  now  from  these  illustrations  of  Professor  Tait's 
judgment  as  exhibited  in  his  special  department,  to  the  con- 
sideration of  his  judgment  on  a  wider  question  here  before 
us — the  formula  of  Evolution.  In  NaUirelox  July  17,  1879, 
while  reviewing  Sir  Edmund  Beckett's  Origin  of  the  Laws  of 
Nature  and  praising  it,  he  says  of  the  author: — 

"He  follows  in  fact,  in  his  own  way.  the  hint  given  by  a  great  mathe- 
matician (Kirkman)  who  made  the  following  exquisite  translation  of  a 
well-known  definition : — Evolution  is  a  change  from  an  indefinite,  inco- 
herent, homogeneity  to  a  definite,  coherent,  heterogeneity,  through  con- 
tinuous differentiations  and  integrations* 

[Translation  into  plain  English.']  Evolution  is  a  change  from  a  no- 
howish,  untalkaboutable,  all-alikeness,  to  a  soraehowish  and  in-general- 
talkaboutable  not-all-alikeness,  by  continuous  somethingelseifications, 
and  sticktogetherations." 

*  A  conscientious  critic  usually  consults  the  latest  edition  of  the  work 
he  criticizes,  so  that  the  author  may  have  the  benefit  of  any  corrections 
or  alterations  he  has  made.     Apparently  Mr.  Kirkman  does  not  think 


578  APPENDIX. 

Professor  Tait,  proceeding  then  to  quote  from  Sir  Edmund 
Beckett's  book  passages  in  which,  as  he  thinks,  there  is  a  kin- 
dred tearing  off  of  disguises  from  the  expressions  used  by  other 
authors,  winds  up  by  saying — "  When  the  purposely  vague 
statements  of  the  materialists  and  agnostics  are  thus  stripped 
of  the  tinsel  of  high-flown  and  unintelligible  language,  the 
eyes  of  the  thoughtless  who  have  accepted  them  on  author- 
ity (!)  are  at  last  opened,  and  they  are  ready  to  exclaim  with 
Titania,  methinks  '  I  was  enamoured  of  an  ass.'  "  And  that 
Mr.  Kirkman  similarly  believes  that  his  travesty  proves  the 
formula  of  Evolution  to  be  meaningless,  is  shown  by  the  sen- 
tence which  follows  it — "  Can.  any  man  show  that  my  trans- 
lation is  unfair?  " 

One  would  have  thought  that  Mr.  Kirkman  and  Professor 
Tait,  however  narrowly  they  limited  themselves  to  their  special 
lines  of  inquiry,  could  hardly  have  avoided  observing  that  in 
j)roportion  as  scientific  terms  express  wider  generalities,  they 
necessarily  lose  that  vividness  of  suggestion  which  words  of 
concrete  meanings  have;  and  therefore  to  the  unitiated  seem 
vague,  or  even  empty.  If  Professor  Tait  enunciated  to  a 
rustic  the  physical  axiom,  "  action  and  reaction  are  equal  and 
opposite,"  the  rustic  might  not  improbably  fail  to  form  any 
corresponding  idea.  And  he  might,  if  his  self-confidence  were 
akin  to  that  of  Mr.  Kirkman,  conclude  that  where  he  saw  no 
meaning  there  could  be  no  meaning.  Further,  if,  after  the 
axiom  had  been  brought  partially  within  his  comprehension 
by  an  example,  he  were  to  laugh  at  the  learned  words  used 
and  propose  to  say  instead — "  shoving  and  back-shoving  are 
one  as  strong  as  the  other;  "  it  would  possibly  be  held  by  Pro- 
fessor Tait  that  this  way  of  putting  it  is  hardly  satisfactory. 
If  he  thought  it  worth  while  to  enlighten  the  rustic,  he  might 
perhaps  point  out  to  him  that  his  statement  did  not  include 
all  the  facts — that  not  only  shoving  and  back-shoving,  but 
also  pulling  and  back-pulling,  are  one  as  strong  as  the  other. 
Supposing  the  rustic  were  not  too  conceited,  he  might  event- 
ually be  taught  that  the  abstract,  and  to  him  seemingly  vague, 
formula  "action  and  reaction  are  equal  and  opposite,"  was 
chosen  because  by  no  words  of  a  more  specific  kind  could  be 

such  a  precaution  needful.  Publishing  in  1876  his  Philosophy  without 
Assumptions,  from  which  the  above  passage  is  taken,  he  quotes  from  the 
first  edition  of  First  Principles  published  in  1862:  though  in  the  edition 
of  1867,  and  all  subsequent  ones,  the  definition  is,  in  expression,  consider- 
ably modified — two  of  the  leading  words  being  no  longer  used. 


APPENDIX.  579 

expressed  the  truth  in  its  entirety.  Professor  Tait  however, 
and  Mr.  Kirkman,  though  the  physical  and  mathematical 
terms  they  daily  employ  are  so  highly  abstract  as  to  prove 
meaningless  to  those  who  are  unfamiliar  with  the  concrete 
facts  covered  by  them,  seem  not  to  have  drawn  any  general 
inference  from  this  habitual  experience.  For  had  they  done 
so,  they  must  have, been  aware  that  a  formula  expressing  all 
orders  of  changes  in  their  general  course — astronomic,  geo- 
logic, biologic,  psychologic,  sociologic — could  not  possibly  be 
framed  in  any  other  than  words  of  the  highest  abstractness. 
Perhaps  there  may  come  the  rejoinder  that  they  do  not  believe 
any  such  universal  formula  is  possible.  Perhaps  they  will 
say  that  the  on-going  of  things  as  shown  in  our  planetary  sys- 
tem, has  nothing  in  common  with  the  on-going  of  things 
which  has  brought  the  Earth's  crust  to  its  present  state,  and 
that  this  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  on-going  of  things 
which  the  growths  and  actions  of  living  bodies  show  us;  al- 
though, considering  that  the  laws  of  molar  motion  and  the 
laws  of  molecular  action  are  proved  to  hold  true  of  them  all, 
it  requires  considerable  courage  to  assert  that  the  modes  of 
co-operation  of  the  physical  forces  in  these  several  regions  of 
phenomena,  present  no  traits  in  common.  But  unless  they 
allege  that  there  is  one  law  for  the  redistribution  of  matter  and 
motion  in  the  heavens,  and  another  law  for  the  redistribution 
of  matter  and  motion  in  the  Earth's  inorganic  masses,  and 
another  law  for  its  organic  masses — unless  they  assert  that  the 
transformation  everywhere  in  progress  follows  here  one  meth- 
od and  there  another;  they  must  admit  that  the  proposition 
which  expresses  the  general  course  of  the  transformation  can 
do  it  only  in  terms  remote  in  the  extremest  degree  from  words 
suggesting  definite  objects  and  actions. 

After  noting  the  unconsciousness  thus  betrayed  by  Mr. 
Kirkman  and  Professor  Tait,  that  the  expression  of  highly 
abstract  truths  necessitates  highly  abstract  words,  we  may  go 
on  to  note  a  scarcely  less  remarkable  anomaly  of  thought 
shown  by  them.  Mr.  Kirkman  appears  to  think,  and  Professor 
Tait  apparently  agrees  with  him  in  thinking,  that  when  one 
of  these  abstract  words  coined  from  Greek  or  Latin  roots,  is 
transformed  into  an  uncouth-looking  combination  of  equiva- 
lents of  Saxon,  or  rather  old  English,  origin,  what  they  regard 
as  its  misleading  glamour  is  thereby  dissipated  and  its  mean- 
inglessness  made  manifest.  We  may  conveniently  observe  the 
nature  of  Mr.  Kirkman's  belief,  by  listening  to  an  imaginary 


5S0  APPENDIX. 

addition  to  that  address  before  the  Literary  and  Philosophical 
Society  of  Liverpool,  in  which  he  first  set  forth  the  leading 
ideas  of  his  volume;  and  we  may  fitly,  in  this  imaginary  addi- 
tion, adopt  the  manner  in  which  he  delights. 

"  Observe,  gentlemen,"  we  may  suppose  him  saying,  "  I 
have  here  the  yolk  of  an  egg.  The  evolutionists,  using  their 
jargon,  say  that  one  of  its  characters  is  e  homogeneity; J  and 
if  you  do  not  examine  your  thoughts,  perhaps  you  may  think 
that  the  word  conveys  some  idea.  But  now  if  I  translate  it 
into  plain  English  and  say  that  one  of  the  characters  of  this 
yolk  is  *'  all-alikeness/  you  at  once  perceive  how  nonsensical 
is  their  statement.  You  see  that  the  substance  of  the  yolk  is 
not  all-alike,  and  that  therefore  all-alikeness  cannot  be  one  of 
its  attributes.  Similarly  with  the  other  pretentious  term 
'  heterogeneity.7  which,  according  to  them,  describes  the  state 
things  are  brought  to  by  what  they  call  evolution.  It  is  mere 
empty  sound,  as  is  manifest  if  I  do  but  transform  it,  as  I  did 
the  other,  and  say  instead  '  not-all-alikeness.'  For  on  show- 
ing you  this  chick  into  which  the  yolk  of  the  egg  turns,  you 
will  see  that  (  not-all-alikeness '  is  a  character  which  cannot 
be  claimed  for  it.  How  can  any  one  say  that  the  parts  of  the 
chick  are  not-all-alike?  Again,  in  their  blatant  language 
we  are  told  that  evolution  is  carried  on  by  continuous  i  dif- 
ferentiations; '  and  they  would  have  us  believe  that  this  word 
expresses  some  fact.  But  if  we  put  instead  of  it  '  something- 
elseifications  '  the  delusion  they  try  to  practise  on  us  becomes 
clear.  How  can  they  say  that  while  the  parts  have  been  form- 
ing themselves,  the  heart  has  been  becoming  something  else 
than  the  stomach,  and  the  leg  something  else  than  the 
wing,  and  the  head  something  else  than  the  tail?  The 
like  manifestly  happens  when  for  '  integrations '  we  read 
'  sticktogetherations: '  what  sense  the  term  might  seem  to 
have,  becomes  obvious  nonsense  when  the  substituted  word 
is  used.  For  nobody  dares  assert  that  the  parts  of  the  chick 
stick  together  any  more  than  do  the  parts  of  the  yolk.  I  need 
hardly  show  you  that  now  when  I  take  a  portion  of  the  yolk 
between  my  fingers  and  pull,  and  now  when  I  take  any  part 
of  the  chick,  as  the  leg,  and  pull,  the  first  resists  just  as  much 
as  the  last — the  last  does  not  stick  together  any  more  than  the 
first;  so  that  there  has  been  no  progress  in  '  sticktogethera- 
tions.' And  thus,  gentlemen,  you  perceive  that  these  big 
words  which,  to  the  disgrace  of  the  Royal  Society,  appear  even 
in  papers  published  by  it,  are  mere  empty  bladders  which  these 


APPENDIX.  581 

would-be  philosophers  use  to  buoy  up  their  ridiculous  doc- 
trines." 

There  is  a  further  curious  mental  trait  exhibited  by  Mr. 
Kirkman  and  which  Professor  Tait  appears  to  have  in  com- 
mon with  him.  Very  truly  it  has  been  remarked  that  there  is  a 
great  difference  between  disclosing  the  absurdities  contained 
in  a  thing  and  piling  absurdities  -upon  it;  and  a  remark  to  be 
added  is  that  some  minds  appear  incapable  of  distinguishing 
between  intrinsic  absurdity  and  extrinsic  absurdity.  The  case 
before  us  illustrates  this  remark;  and  at  the  same  time  shows 
us  how  analytical  faculties  of  one  kind  may  be  constantly 
exercised  without  strengthening  analytical  faculties  of  another 
kind — how  mathematical  analysis  may  be  daily  practised  with- 
out any  skill  in  psychological  analysis  being  acquired.  For 
if  these  gentlemen  had  analyzed  their  own  thoughts  to  any 
purpose,  they  would  have  known  that  incongruous  juxtaposi- 
tions may,  by  association  of  ideas,  suggest  characters  that  do 
hot  at  all  belong  to  the  things  juxtaposed.  Did  Mr.  Kirkman 
ever  observe  the  result  of  putting  a  bonnet  on  a  nude  statue? 
If  he  ever  did,  and  if  he  then  reasoned  after  the  manner  ex- 
emplified above,  he  doubtless  concluded  that  the  obscene  effect 
belonged  intrinsically  to  the  statue,  and  only  required  the 
addition  of  the  bonnet  to  make  it  conspicuous.  The  alterna- 
tive conclusion,  however,  which  perhaps  most  will  draw,  is 
that  not  in  the  statue  itself  was  there  anything  of  an  obscene 
suggestion,  but  that  this  effect  was  purely  adventitious:  the 
bonnet,  connected  in  daily  experience  with  living  women, 
calling  up  the  thought  of  a  living  woman  with  the  head  dressed 
but  otherwise  naked.  Similarly  though,  by  clothing  an  idea 
in  words  which  excite  a  feeling  of  the  ludicrous  by  their  odd- 
ity, any  one  may  associate  this  feeling  of  the  ludicrous  with 
the  idea  itself,  yet  he  does  not  thereby  make  the  idea  ludi- 
crous; and  if  he  thinks  he  does,  he  shows  that  he  has  not  prac- 
tised introspection  to  much  purpose. 

By  way  of  a  lesson  in  mental  discipline,  it  may  be  not  un- 
instructive  here  to  note  a  curious  kinship  of  opinion  between 
these  two  mathematicians  and  two  litterateurs.  At  first  sight 
it  appears  strange  that  men  whose  lives  are  passed  in  studies 
so  absolutely  scientific  as  those  which  Professor  Tait  and  Mr. 
Kirkman  pursue,  should,  in  their  judgments  on  the  formula 
of  Evolution,  be  at  one  with  two  men  of  exclusively  literary 
culture — a  North  American  Reviewer  and  Mr.  Matthew  Ar- 
nold.   In  the  North  American  Review,  vol.  120,  page  202,  a 


582  APPENDIX. 

critic,  after  quoting  the  formula  of  Evolution,  says: — "  This 
may  he  all  true,  hut  it  seems  at  hest  rather  the  blank  form  for 
a  universe  than  anything  corresponding  to  the  actual  world 
about  us."  On  which  the  comment  may  be  that  one  who  had 
studied  celestial  mechanics  as  much  as  the  reviewer  has  studied 
the  general  course  of  transformations,  might  similarly  have 
remarked  that  the  formula — "  bodies  attract  one  another  di- 
rectly as  their  masses  and  inversely  as  the  squares  of  their 
distances,"  was  at  best  but  a  blank  form  for  solar  systems  and 
sidereal  clusters.  With  this  parenthetical  comment  I  pass 
to  the  fact  above  hinted,  that  Mr.  Matthew  Arnold  obviously 
coincides  with  the  reviewer's  estimate  of  the  formula.  In 
Chapter  V.  of  his  work  God  and  the  Bible,  when  preparing 
the  way  for  a  criticism  on  German  theologians  as  losing  them- 
selves in  words,  he  quotes  a  sa}Ting  from  Homer.  This  he  in- 
troduces by  remarking  that  it  "  is  not  at  all  a  grand  one.  We 
are  almost  ashamed  to  quote  it  to  readers  who  may  have  come 
fresh  from  the  last  number  of  the  North  American  Review, 
and  from  the  great  sentence  there  quoted  as  summing  up  Mr. 
Herbert  Spencer's  theory  of  evolution: — '  Evolution  is  &c/ 
Homer's  poor  little  saying  comes  not  in  such  formidable  shape. 
It  is  only  this: — Wide  is  the  range  of  words!  words  may  make 
this  ivay  or  that  way."  And  then  he  proceeds  with  his  re- 
flections upon  German  logomachies.  All  of  which  makes  it 
manifest  that,  going  out  of  his  way,  as  he  does,  to  quote  this 
formula  from  the  North  Anwrican  Review,  he  intends  tacitly 
to  indicate  his  agreement  in  the  reviewer's  estimate  of  it. 

That  these  two  men  of  letters,  like  the  two  mathematicians, 
are  unable  to  frame  ideas  answering  to  the  words  in  which 
evolution  at  large  is  expressed,  seems  manifest.  In  all  four 
the  verbal  symbols  used  call  up  either  no  images,  or  images 
of  the  vaguest  kinds,  which,  grouped  together,  form  but  the 
most  shadowy  thoughts.  If,  now,  we  ask  what  is  the  common 
trait  in  the  education  and  pursuits  of  all  four,  we  see  it  to  be 
lack  of  familiarity  with  those  complex  processes  of  change 
which  the  concrete  sciences  bring  before  us.  The  men  of 
letters,  in  their  early  days  dieted  on  grammars  and  lexicons, 
and  in  their  later  days  occupied  with  belles  lettres,  Biography, 
and  a  History  made  up  mainly  of  personalities,  are  by  their 
education  and  course  of  life  left  almost  without  scientific  ideas 
of  a  definite  kind.  The  universality  of  physical  causation — 
the  interpretation  of  all  things  in  terms  of  a  never-ceasing 
redistribution  of  matter  and  motion,  is  naturally  to  them  an 


APPENDIX.  583 

idea  utterly  alien.  The  mathematician,  too,  and  the  mathe- 
matical physicist,  occupied  exclusively  with  the  phenomena 
of  number,  space,  and  time,  or,  in  dealing  with  forces,  deal- 
ing with  them  in  the  abstract,  carry  on  their  researches  in 
such  ways  as  may,  and  often  do,  leave  them  quite  unconscious 
of  the  traits  exhibited  by  the  general  transformations  which 
things,  individually  and  in  their  totality,  undergo.  In  a  chap- 
ter on  "  Discipline  "  in  the  Study  of  Sociology,  I  have  com- 
mented upon  the  uses  of  the  several  groups  of  Sciences — 
Abstract,  Abstract-Concrete,  and  Concrete — in  cultivating 
different  powers  of  mind;  and  have  argued  that  while  for 
complete  preparation,  the  discipline  of  each  group  of  sciences 
is  indispensable,  the  discipline  of  any  one  group  alone,  or 
any  two  groups,  leave  certain  defects  of  judgment.  Especially 
have  I  contrasted  the  analytical  habit  of  thought  which  study 
of  the  Abstract  and  Abstract-Concrete  Sciences  produces,  with 
the  synthetical  habit  of  thought,  produced  by  study  of  the 
Concrete  Sciences.  And  I  have  exemplified  the  defects  of 
judgment  to  which  the  analytical  habit  unqualified  by  the 
synthetical  habit,  leads.  Here  we  meet  with  a  striking  illus- 
tration. Scientific  culture  of  the  analytical  kind,  almost  as 
much  as  absence  of  scientific  culture,  leaves  the  mind  bare 
of  those  ideas  with  which  the  Concrete  Sciences  deal.  Exclu- 
sive familiarity  with  the  forms  and  factors  of  phenomena,  no 
more  fits  men  for  dealing  with  the  products  in  their  totalities, 
than  does  mere  literary  study. 

An  objection  made  to  the  formula  of  evolution  by  a  sympa- 
thetic critic,  Mr.  T.  E.  Cliffe  Leslie,  calls  for  notice.  It  is 
urged  in  a  spirit  widely  different  from  that  displayed  by  Mr. 
Kirkman  and  his  applauder  Professor  Tait;  and  it  has  an 
apparent  justification.  Indeed  many  readers  who  before  ac- 
cepted the  formula  of  Evolution  in  full,  will,  after  reading 
Mr.  Cliffe  Leslie's  comments,  agree  with  him  in  thinking  that 
it  is  to  be  taken  with  the  qualifications  he  points  out.  We 
shall  find,  however,  that  a  clearer  apprehension  of  the  mean- 
ings of  the  words  used,  and  a  clearer  apprehension  of  the 
formula  in  its  totality,  excludes  the  criticisms  Mr.  Leslie 
makes. 

In  the  first  place  he  dissociates  from  one  another  those 
traits  of  Evolution  which  I  have  associated,  and  which  I  have 
alleged  to  be  true  only  when  associated.  He  quotes  me  as 
saying  that  a  change  from  the  homogeneous  to  the  hetero- 


584:  APPENDIX. 

geneous  characterizes  all  evolution;  and  he  puts  this  at  the 
outset  of  his  criticism  as  though  I  made  this  change  the  pri- 
mary characteristic.  But  if  he  will  refer  to  First  Principles, 
Part  II.  chap.  1-1  (in  the  second  and  subsequent  editions)  he 
will  find  it  shown  that  under  its  primary  aspect,  Evolution 
"  is  a  change  from  a  less  coherent  form  to  a  more  coherent 
form,  consequent  on  the  dissipation  of  motion  and  integra- 
tion of  matter."  The  next  chapter  contains  proofs  that  the 
change  from  homogeneity  to  heterogeneity  is  a  secondary 
change,  which,  when  conditions  allow,  accompanies  the 
change  from  the  incoherent  to  the  coherent.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  chapter  after  that,  come  the  sentences — "  But 
now,  does  this  generalization  express  the  whole  truth?  Does 
it  include  everything  essentially  characterizing  Evolution  and 
exclude  everything  else?  ...  A  critical  examination  of  the 
facts  will  show  that  it  does  neither."  And  the  chapter  then 
goes  on  to  show  that  the  change  is  from  an  indefinite  inco- 
herent homogeneity  to  a  definite  coherent  heterogeneity. 
Further  qualifications  contained  in  a  succeeding  chapter,  bring 
the  formula  to  this  final  form — "  Evolution  is  an  integration 
of  matter  and  concomitant  dissipation  of  motion;  during 
which  the  matter  passes  from  an  indefinite,  incoherent  homo- 
geneity to  a  definite,  coherent  heterogeneity;  and  during 
which  the  retained  motion  undergoes  a  parallel  transforma- 
tion." 

Now  if  these  various  traits  of  the  process  of  Evolution  are 
kept  simultaneously  in  view,  it  will  be  seen  that  most  of  Mr. 
Cliffe  Leslie's  objections  fail  to  apply.    He  says: — 

"  The  movement  of  language,  law,  and  political  and  civil  union,  is  for 
the  most  part  in  an  opposite  direction.  In  a  savage  country  like  Africa, 
speech  is  in  a  perpetual  flux,  and  new  dialects  spring  up  with  every 
swarm  from  the  parent  hive.  In  the  civilized  world  the  unification  of 
language  is  rapidly  proceeding." 

Here  two  different  ideas  are  involved — the  evolution  of  a  lan- 
guage considered  singly,  and  the  evolution  of  languages  con- 
sidered as  an  aggregate.  Nothing  which  he  says  implies  that 
any  one  language  becomes,  during  its  evolution,  less  hetero- 
geneous. The  disappearance  of  dialects  is  not  a  progress  to- 
wards the  homogeneity  of  a  language,  but  is  the  final  triumph 
of  one  variety  of  a  language  over  the  other  varieties,  and  the 
extinction  of  them:  the  conquering  variety  meanwhile  be- 
coming within  itself  more  heterogeneous.  This,  too,  is  the 
process  which  Mr.  Leslie  refers  to  as  likely  to  end  in  an  ex- 


APPENDIX.  585 

tinction  of  the  Celtic  languages.  Advance  towards  homo- 
geneity would  be  shown  if  the  various  languages  in  Europe, 
having  been  previously  unlike,  were,  while  still  existing,  to 
become  gradually  more  like.  But  the  supplanting  of  one  by 
another,  or  of  some  by  others,  no  more  implies  any  tendency 
of  languages  to  become  alike,  than  does  the  supplanting  of 
species,  genera,  orders,  and  classes  of  animals,  one  by  another, 
during  the  evolution  of  life,  imply  the  tendency  of  organisms 
to  assimilate  in  their  natures.  Even  if  the  most  heterogene- 
ous creature,  Man,  should  overrun  the  Earth  and  extirpate 
the  greater  part  of  its  other  inhabitants,  it  would  not  imply 
any  tendency  towards  homogeneity  in  the  proper  sense.  It 
would  remain  true  that  organisms  tend  perpetually  towards 
heterogeneity,  individually  and  as  an  assemblage.  Of  course 
if  all  kinds  but  one  were  destroyed,  they  could  no  longer  dis- 
play this  tendency.  Display  of  it  would  be  limited  to  the 
remaining  kind,  which  would  continue,  as  now,  to  show  it 
in  the  formation  of  local  varieties,  becoming  gradually  more 
divergent;  and  the  like  is  true  of  languages. 

In  the  next  case  Mr.  Leslie  identifies  progressing  unifica- 
tion with  advance  towards  homogeneity.     His  words  are: — 

"  Already  Europe  has  nearly  consolidated  itself  into  a  Heptarchy,  the 
number  of  states  into  which  England  itself  was  once  divided ;  and  the 
result  of  the  American  War  exemplifies  the  prevalence  of  the  forces  tend- 
ing to  homogeneity  over  those  tending  to  heterogeneity." 

To  this  the  reply  is  that  these  cases  exemplify,  rather,  the 
prevalence  of  the  forces  which  change  the  incoherent  into  the 
coherent — which  effect  integration.  That  is,  they  exemplify 
Evolution  under  its  primary  aspect.  In  the  Principles  of  Soci- 
ology, Part  II.  chap  3,  Mr.  Leslie  will  find  numerous  kindred 
cases  brought  in  illustration  of  this  law  of  Evolution.  To 
which  add  that  such  integrations  bring  after  them  greater 
heterogeneity,  not  greater  homogeneity.  The  divisions  of  the 
Heptarchy  were  societies  substantially  like  one  another  in 
their  structures  and  activities;  but  the  parts  of  the  nation 
which  correspond  to  them,  have  been  differentiated  into  parts 
carrying  on  varieties  of  occupations  with  entailed  unlikenesses 
of  structures — here  purely  agricultural,  there  manufacturing; 
here  predominantly  given  to  coal  mining  and  iron  smelting, 
there  to  weaving;  here  distinguished  by  scattered  villages, 
there  by  clusters  of  large  towns. 

Again,  it  is  alleged  that  an  increasing  homogeneity  is 
shown  in  fashion.    "  Once  every  rank,  profession,  and  district 
39 


586  APPENDIX. 

had  a  distinctive  garb;  now  all  such  distinctions,  save  with 
the  priest  and  the  soldier,  have  almost  disappeared  among 
men."  But  while  for  a  reason  to  be  presently  pointed  out,  there 
has  occurred  a  change  which  has  abolished  one  order  of  dif- 
ferences, differences  of  another  order,  far  more  multitudinous, 
have  arisen.  Nothing  is  more  striking  than  the  extreme 
heterogeneity  of  dress  at  the  present  day.  As  Mr.  Leslie 
alleges,  the  dresses  of  those  forming  each  class  were  once 
all  alike;  now  no  two  dresses  are  alike.  Within  the  vague 
limits  of  the  current  fashion,  the  degree  of  variety  in  wom- 
en's costumes  is  infinite;  and  even  men's  costumes,  though 
having  average  resemblances,  diverge  from  one  another 
in  colours,  materials,  and  detailed  forms  in  innumerable 
ways. 

Other  instances  given  by  Mr.  Leslie  concern  the  organiza- 
tions for  carrying  on  production  and  distribution.  He  argues 
that— 

"  In  the  industrial  world  a  generation  ago  a  constant  movement  to- 
wards a  differentiation  of  employments  and  functions  appeared  ;  now 
some  marked  tendencies  to  their  amalgamation  have  begun  to  disclose 
themselves.  Joint  Stock  Companies  have  almost  effaced  all  real  division 
of  labour  in  the  wide  region  of  trade  within  their  operation." 

Here,  as  before,  Mr.  Leslie  represents  amalgamation  as  equiva- 
lent to  increase  of  homogeneity;  whereas  amalgamation  is  but 
another  name  for  integration,  which  is  the  primary  process  of 
Evolution,  and  which  may,  and  does,  go  along  with  increas- 
ing heterogeneity  in  the  amalgamated  things.  It  cannot  be 
said  that  a  Joint  Stock  Banking  Company,  with  its  proprie- 
tory and  directors  in  addition  to  its  officers,  contains  fewer 
unlike  parts  than  does  a  private  Banking  establishment:  the 
contrary  must  be  said.  A  Eailway  Company  has  far  more 
numerous  functionaries  with  different  duties,  than  had  the 
one,  or  the  many,  coaching  establishments  it  replaced.  And 
then,  apart  from  the  fact  that  the  larger  aggregate  of  co-opera- 
tors who,  as  a  Company,  carry  on,  say  a  process  of  manufacture, 
is  more  complex  as  well  as  more  extensive;  there  is  the  fact, 
here  chiefly  to  be  noted,  that  the  entire  assemblage  of  indus- 
trial structures  is,  by  the  addition  of  these  new  structures, 
made  more  heterogeneous  than  before.  Had  all  the  smaller 
manufacturing  establishments,  carried  on  by  individuals  or 
firms,  been  destroyed,  the  contrary  might  have  been  alleged; 
but  as  it  is,  we  see  that  in  addition  to  all  the  old  forms  there 
have  come  these  new  forms,  making  the  totality  of  them  more 


APPENDIX.  537 

multiform  than  before.  Mr.  Leslie  further  illustrates  his 
interpretation  by  saying: — 

"  Many  of  the  things  for  sale  in  a  village  huckster's  shop  were  formerly 
the  subjects  of  distinct  branches  of  business  in  a  large  town  :  now  the 
wares  in  which  scores  of  different  retailers  dealt,  are  all  to  be  had  in  great 
establishments  in  New  York,  Paris,  and  London,  which  sometimes  buy 
direct  from  the  producers,  thus  also  eliminating  the  wholesale  dealer." 

Eeplies  akin  to  the  preceding  ones  are  readily  made.  The  first 
is  that  wholesale  dealers  have  not  been  at  present  eliminated; 
and  cannot  be  so  long  as  the  ordinary  shopkeepers  survive, 
as  they  will  certainly  do.  In  the  smaller  places,  forming  the 
great  majority  of  places,  these  vast  establishments  cannot 
exist;  and  in  them,  shopkeepers  carrying  on  business  as  at 
present,  will  continue  to  necessitate  wholesale  dealers.  Even 
in  large  places  the  same  thing  will  hold.  It  is  only  people 
of  a  certain  class,  able  to  pay  ready  money  and  willing  to  go 
great  distances  to  purchase,  who  frequent  these  large  estab- 
lishments. Those  who  live  from  hand  to  mouth,  and  those 
who  prefer  to  buy  at  adjacent  places,  will  maintain  a  certain 
proportion  of  shops,  and  the  wholesale  distributing  organiza- 
tion needed  for  them.  Again,  we  have  to  note  that  one  of  these 
great  stores,  such  as  Whiteley's  or  Shoolbred's,  does  not  with- 
in itself  display  any  advance  towards  homogeneity  or  de-spe- 
cialization; for  it  is  made  up  of  many  separate  departments, 
with  their  separate  heads,  carrying  on  businesses  substantially 
separate — all  superintended  by  one  owner.  It  is  nothing  but 
an  aggregate  of  shops  under  one  roof  instead  of  under  the 
many  roofs  covering  the  side  of  a  street;  and  exhibits  just  as 
much  heterogeneity  as  the  shops  do  when  arranged  in  line 
instead  of  massed  together.  That  which  it  really  illustrates 
is  a  new  form  of  integration,  which  is  the  primary  evolution- 
ary process.  And  then,  lastly,  comes  the  fact  that  the  dis- 
tributing organization  of  the  country,  considered  as  a  whole, 
is  by  the  addition  of  these  establishments  made  more  hetero- 
geneous than  before.  All  the  old  types  of  trading  concerns 
continue  to  exist;  and  here  are  new  types  added,  making  the 
entire  assemblage  of  them  more  varied. 

From  these  objections  made  by  Mr.  Leslie  which  I  have 
endeavoured  to  show  result  from  misapprehensions,  I  pass  to 
two  others  which  are  to  be  met  by  taking  account  of  certain 
complicating  facts  liable  to  be  overlooked.  Mr.  Leslie  re- 
marks that: — 

"  In  the  early  stages  of  social  progress,  again,  a  differentiation  takes 
place,  as  Mr.  Spencer  has  observed,  between  political  and  industrial  f  unc- 


588  APPENDIX. 

tions,  which  fall  to  distinct  classes ;  now  a  man  is  a  merchant  in  the 
morning  and  a  legislator  at  night ;  in  mercantile  business  one  year,  and 
the  next  perhaps  head  of  the  Navy,  like  Mr.  Goschen  or  Mr.  W.  H. 
Smith." 

Nothing  contained  in  this  volume  explains  the  seeming  anom- 
aly here  exemplified;  but  any  one  who  turns  to  a  chapter  in 
the  second  part  of  the  Principles  of  Sociology,  entitled  "  So- 
cial Types  and  Metamorphoses/'  will  there  find  a  clue  to  the. 
explanation  of  it;  and  will  see  that  it  is  a  phenomenon  con- 
sequent on  the  progressing  dissolution  of  one  type  and  evo- 
lution of  another.  The  doctrine  of  Evolution,  currently  re- 
garded as  referring  only  to  the  development  of  species,  is 
erroneously  supposed  to  imply  some  intrinsic  proclivity  in 
every  species  towards  a  higher  form;  and,  similarly,  a  majority 
of  readers  make  the  erroneous  assumption  that  the  trans- 
formation which  constitutes  Evolution  in  its  wider  sense, 
implies  an  intrinsic  tendency  to  go  through  those  changes 
which  the  formula  of  Evolution  expresses.  But  all  who  have 
fully  grasped  the  argument  of  this  work,  will  see  that  the 
process  of  Evolution  is  not  necessary,  but  depends  on  condi- 
tions; and  that  the  prevalence  of  it  in  the  Universe  around, 
is  consequent  on  the  prevalence  of  these  conditions:  the  fre- 
quent occurrence  of  Dissolution  showing  us  that  where  the 
conditions  are  not  maintained,  the  reverse  process  is  quite  as 
readily  gone  through.  Bearing  in  mind  this  truth,  we  shall 
be  prepared  to  find  that  the  progress  of  a  social  organism 
towards  more  heterogeneous  and  more  definite  structures  of  a 
certain  type,  continues  only  as  long  as  the  actions  which  pro- 
duce these  effects  continue  in  play.  We  shall  expect  that  if 
these  actions  cease,  the  progressing  transformation  will  cease. 
We  shall  infer  that  the  particular  structures  which  have  been 
formed  by  the  activities  carried  on,  will  not  grow  more  hetero- 
geneous and  more  definite;  and  that  if  other  orders  of  activi- 
ties, implying  other  sets  of  forces,  commence,  answering 
structures  of  another  kind  will  begin  to  make  their  appear- 
ance, to  grow  more  heterogeneous  and  definite,  and  to  replace 
the  first.  And  it  will  be  "manifest  that  while  the  transition 
is  going  on — while  the  first  structures  are  dissolving  and  the 
second  evolving — there  must  be  a  mixture  of  structures  caus- 
ing apparent  confusion  of  traits.  Just  as  during  the  meta- 
morphoses of  an  animal  which,  having  during  its  earlier  ex- 
istence led  one  kind  of  life,  has  to  develop  structures  fitting 
it  for  another  kind  of  life,  there  must  occur  a  blurring  of  the 


APPENDIX.  589 

old  organization  while  the  new  organization  is  becoming  dis- 
tinct, leading  to  transitory  anomalies  of  structure;  so,  during 
the  metamorphoses  undergone  by  a  society  in  which  the  mili- 
tant activities  and  structures  are  dwindling  while  the  indus- 
trial are  growing,  the  old  and  new  arrangements  must  be  min- 
gled in  a  perplexing  way.  On  reading  the  chapter  in  the 
Principles  of  Sociology  which  I  have  named,  Mr.  Leslie  will 
see  that  the  above  facts  referred  to  by  him,  are  interpretable 
as  consequent  on  the  transition  from  that  type  of  regulative 
organization  proper  to  militant  life,  to  that  type  of  regulative 
organization  proper  to  industrial  life;  and  that  so  long  as 
these  two  modes  of  life,  utterly  alien  in  their  natures,  have  to 
be  jointly  carried  on,  there  will  continue  this  jumbling  of  the 
regulative  systems  they  respectively  require. 

The  second  of  the  objections  above  noted  as  needing  to  be 
otherwise  dealt  with  than  by  further  explanation  of  the  for- 
mula of  Evolution,  concerns  the  increase  of  likeness  among 
developing  systems  of  Civil  Law;  in  proof  of  which  increase 
of  likeness  Mr.  Leslie  quotes  Sir  Henry  Maine  to  the  effect 
that  '  all  laws,  however  dissimilar  in  their  infancy,  tend  to 
resemble  each  other  in  their  maturity : '  the  implication  to 
which  Mr.  Leslie  draws  attention,  being  that  in  respect  of 
their  laws  societies  become  not  more  heterogeneous  but  more 
homogeneous.  Now  though  in  their  details,  systems  of  Law 
will,  I  think,  be  found  to  acquire  as  they  evolve,  an  increasing 
number  of  differences  from  one  another;  yet  in  their  cardinal 
traits  it  is  probably  true  that  they  usually  approximate.  How 
far  this  militates  against  the  formula  of  Evolution,  we  shall 
best  see  by  first  considering  the  analogy  furnished  by  animal 
organisms.  Low  down  in  the  animal  kingdom  there  are  simple 
molluscs  with  but  rudimentary  nervous  systems — a  ganglion 
or  two  and  a  few  fibres.  Diverging  from  this  low  type  we  have 
the  great  sub-kingdom  constituted  by  the  higher  Mollusca 
and  the  still  greater  sub-kingdom  constituted  by  the  Verte- 
brata.  As  these  two  types  evolve,  their  nervous  systems  de- 
velop; and  though  in  the  highest  members  of  the  two  they 
remain  otherwise  unlike,  yet  they  approximate  in  so  far  that 
each  acquires  great  nervous  centres:  the  large  cephalopods 
have  clustered  ganglia  which  simulate  brains.  Compare,  again, 
the  Mollusca  and  the  Articulata  in  respect  of  their  vascular 
systems.  Fundamentally  unlike  as  these  are  originally,  and 
remaining  unlike  as  they  do  throughout  many  successive 
stages  of  ascent  in  these  two  sub-kingdoms,  they  nevertheless 


590  APPENDIX. 

are  made  similar  in  the  highest  forms  of  both  by  each  having 
a  central  propelling  organ — a  heart.  Now  in  these  and  in  some 
cases  which  the  external  organs  furnish,  such  as  the  remark- 
able resemblance  Evolution  has  produced  between  the  eyes 
of  the  highest  Mollusca  and  those  of  the  Vertebrata,  it  may 
be  said  that  there  is  implied  a  change  towards  homogeneity. 
No  zoologist,  however,  would  admit  that  these  facts  really 
conflict  with  the  general  law  of  Organic  Evolution.  As  al- 
ready explained,  the  tendency  to  progress  from  homogeneity 
to  heterogeneity  is  not  intrinsic  but  extrinsic.  Structures 
become  unlike  in  consequence  of  unlike  exposures  to  incident 
forces.  This  is  so  with  organisms  as  wholes,  which,  as  they 
multiply  and  spread,  are  ever  falling  into  new  sets  of  condi- 
tions; and  it  is  so  with  the  parts  of  each  organism.  These 
pass  from  primitive  likeness  into  unlikeness;  as  fast  as  the 
mode  of  life  places  them  in  different  relations  to  actions — 
primarily  external  and  secondarily  internal;  and  with  each 
successive  change  in  mode  of  life  new  unlikenesses  are  super- 
posed. One  of  the  implications  is  that  if  in  organisms  other- 
wise different,  there  arise  like  sets  of  conditions  to  which  cer- 
tain parts  are  subject,  such  parts  will  tend  towards  likeness; 
and  this  is  what  happens  with  their  nervous  and  vascular  sys- 
tems. Duly  to  co-ordinate  the  actions  of  all  parts  of  an  active 
organism,  there  requires  a  controlling  apparatus;  and  the  con- 
ditions to  be  fulfilled  for  perfect  co-ordination,  are  conditions 
common  to  all  active  organisms.  Hence,  in  proportion  as  ful- 
filment approaches  completeness  in  the  highest  organisms, 
however  otherwise  unlike  their  types  are,  this  apparatus  ac- 
quires in  all  of  them  certain  common  characters — especially 
extreme  centralization.  Similarly  with  the  apparatus  for  dis- 
tributing nutriment.  The  relatively  high  activity  accom- 
panying superior  organization,  implies  great  waste;  great 
waste  implies  active  circulation  of  blood;  active  circulation 
of  blood  implies  efficient  propulsion;  so  that  a  heart  becomes 
a  common  need  for  highly  evolved  creatures,  however  other- 
wise unlike  their  structures  may  be.  Thus  is  it,  too,  with 
societies.  As  they  evolve  there  arise  certain  conditions  to  be 
fulfilled  for  the  maintenance  of  social  life;  and  in  proportion 
as  the  social  life  becomes  high,  these  conditions  need  to  be 
more  effectually  fulfilled.  A  legal  code  expresses  one  set  of 
these  conditions.  It  formulates  certain  regulative  principles 
to  which  the  conduct  of  citizens  must  conform  that  social 
activities  may  be  harmoniously  carried  on.     And  these  regu- 


APPENDIX. 


591 


lative  principles  being  in  essentials  the  same  everywhere,  it 
results  that  systems  of  Law  acquire  certain  general  similarities 
as  the  most  developed  social  life  is  approached. 

These  special  replies  to  Mr.  Leslie's  objections  are,  how- 
ever, but  introductory  to  the  general  reply;  which  would  be, 
I  think,  adequate  even  in  their  absence.  Mr.  Leslie's  method 
is  that  of  taking  detached  groups  of  social  phenomena,  as  those 
of  language,  of  fashion,  of  trade,  and  arguing  (though  as  I 
have  sought  to  show,  not  effectually)  that  their  later  trans- 
formations do  not  harmonize  with  the  alleged  general  law  of 
Evolution.  But  the  real  question  is,  not  whether  we  find  ad- 
vance to  a  more  definite  coherent  heterogeneity  in  these  taken 
separately,  but  whether  we  find  this  advance  in  the  structures 
and  actions  of  the  entire  society.  Even  were  it  true  that  the 
law  does  not  hold  in  certain  orders  of  social  processes  and  pro- 
ducts, it  would  not  follow  that  it  does  not  hold  of  social  pro- 
cesses and  products  in  their  totality.  The  law  is  a  law  of  the 
transformation  of  aggregates;  and  must  be  tested  by  the 
entire  assemblages  of  phenomena  which  the  aggregate  present. 
Omitting  societies  in  states  of  decay  and  dissolution,  which 
exhibit  the  converse  change,  and  contemplating  only  socie- 
ties which  are  growing,  Mr.  Leslie  will,  I  think,  scarcely  allege 
of  any  one  of  them  that  its  structures  and  functions  do  not, 
taken  altogether,  exhibit  increasing  heterogeneity.  And  if, 
instead  of  taking  each  society  as  an  aggregate,  he  takes  the 
entire  aggregate  of  societies  which  the  Earth  supports,  from 
primitive  hordes  up  to  highly  civilized  nations,  he  will  scarcely 
deny  that  this  entire  aggregate  has  been  becoming  more  various 
in  the  forms  of  societies  it  includes,  and  is  still  becoming  more 
various. 

Criticism  would  be  greatly  diminished  in  bulk  if  there 
were  excluded  from  it  all  that  part  devoted  to  disproving 
statements  which  have  not  been  made;  and  were  this  course 
pursued,  the  work  On  Mr.  Spencer's  Formula  of  Evolution, 
by  Malcolm  Guthrie,  would  disappear  bodily.  It  is  little  else 
than  a  mis-statement  of  certain  fundamental  views  of  mine, 
and  then  an  elaborate  refutation  of  the  views  as  mis-stated. 

Let  me  first  show  by  brief  extracts  from  First  Principles 
what  these  views  are.  In  a  chapter  on  "  Ultimate  Scientific 
Ideas,"  after  showing  how  the  hypothesis  that  matter  consists 
of  solid  atoms  commits  us  to  alternative  impossibilities  of 
thought,  I  have  shown  how  the  hypothesis  of  Boscovich,  that 


592  APPENDIX. 

matter  consists  of  centres  of  force  without  extension,  is  un- 
thinkable. In  the  course  of  the  argument  I  have  pointed  out 
that  though  Boscovich's  hypothesis  cannot  he  realized  in 
thought,  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  the  hypothesis  of  extended 
atoms  itself  implies  an  imaginary  separableness  of  each  atom 
into  parts,  and  again  of  these  into  parts,  and  so  on  without 
limit  until  unextended  centres  of  force  are  reached:  the  con- 
sciousness of  force  being  that  which  alone  perpetually  emerges. 
And  I  have  ended  by  saying  that  "  Matter  then,  in  its  ulti- 
mate nature,  is  as  absolutely  incomprehensible  as  Space  and 
Time."  In  the  second  part  of  the  work,  in  chapters  treating 
of  "  The  Indestructibility  of  Matter,"  "  The  Continuity  of 
Motion,"  and  "  The  Persistence  of  Force,"  I  have  at  some 
length  elaborated  the  view  that  Force  is  the  ultimate  com- 
ponent of  thought  into  which  our  conceptions  of  external 
existences  are  resolvable.  Summing  up  the  first  of  these 
chapters  I  have  said — "thus,  then,  by  the  indestructibility 
of  matter,  we  really  mean  the  indestructibility  of  the  force 
with  which  matter  affects  us."  At  the  close  of  the  second  of 
these  chapters  I  have  argued  that  "  the  continuity  of  motion, 
as  well  as  the  indestructibility  of  matter,  is  really  known  to 
us  in  terms  of  force  "  .  .  .  "  that  which  defies  suppression  in 
thought,  is  really  the  force  which  the  motion  indicates."  And 
then  in  the  third  chapter,  having  shown  how  the  truths  that 
matter  is  indestructible  and  motion  continuous,  can  be  known 
to  us  only  as  corollaries  from  the  truth  that  force  is  persistent 
— that  force  is  that  "  out  of  which  our  conceptions  of  Matter 
and  Motion  are  built " — I  have  gone  on  to  say  that  "  by  the 
Persistence  of  Force,  we  really  mean  the  persistence  of  some 
Power  which  transcends  our  knowledge  and  conception." 
Throughout  all  which  arguments  the  implication  is  that  I 
hold  Matter  and  Motion  to  be  conditioned  manifestations  of 
this  unknown  Power.  Being  aware  of  the  perversity  of  critics, 
I  have,  in  the  "  Summary  and  Conclusion,"  again  endeavoured 
to  bar  out  misinterpretations.  Here  is  one  of  the  sentences 
it  contains: — 

"  Over  and  over  again  it  has  been  shown  in  various  ways,  that  the 
deepest  truths  we  can  reach,  are  simply  statements  of  the  widest  uni- 
formities in  our  experience  of  the  relations  of  Matter,  Motion,  and  Force  ; 
and  that  Matter,  Motion,  and  Force  are  but  symbols  of  the  Unknown 
Reality.  A  Power  of  which  the  nature  remains  for  ever  inconceivable,  and 
to  which  no  limits  in  Time  or  Space  can  be  imagined,  works  in  us  certain 
effects.  These  effects  have  certain  likenesses  of  kind,  the  most  general  of 
which  we  class  together  under  the  names  of  Matter,  Motion,  and  Force." 


APPENDIX.  593 

In  which  sentences  it  is  distinctly  stated'  that  I  have  through- 
out regarded  Matter  under  the  form  present  to  consciousness, 
as  a  symbol — a  certain  conditioned  effect  wrought  in  us  by 
the  Unknown  Power;  and  I  have  gone  on  to  say  that  "  the 
interpretation  of  all  phenomena  in  terms  of  Matter,  Motion, 
and  Force,  is  nothing  m'ore  than  the  reduction  of  our  complex 
symbols  of  thought,  to  the  simplest  symbols;  and  when  the 
equation  has  been  brought  to  its  lowest  terms  the  symbols 
remain  symbols  still." 

It  will  scarcely  be  believed,  and  yet  it  is  true,  that  not- 
withstanding all  this,  Mr.  Guthrie  ascribes  to  me  the  vulgar 
conceptions  of  Matter  and  Motion;  argues  as  though  I  really 
think  they  are  in  themselves  what  they  seem  to  our  conscious- 
ness; and  proceeds  to  criticize  my  views  on  this  assumption. 
He  ignores  the  conspicuous  fact  that  Matter  and  Motion  are 
both  regarded  by  me  as  modes  of  manifestation  of  Force,  and 
that  Force  as  we  are  conscious  of  it  when  by  our  own  efforts 
we  produce  changes,  is  the  correlative  of  that  Universal  Power 
which  transcends  consciousness.  And  then  he  ends  the  criti- 
cisms forming  the  second  part  of  his  work  by  saying  "  if  this 
is  not  materialistic  I  do  not  know  what  is."  He  does  not  do 
this  by  inadvertence,  though  there  would  be  little  excuse  even 
then;  but  he  does  it  deliberately  and  with  his  eyes  open.  His 
next  chapter  begins: — 

"  It  will  have  been  observed  that  in  the  preceding  part  of  this  criticism 
I  have  employed  the  term  '  matter  in  motion,'  and  have  avoided  the  use  of 
the  word  '  force,'  although  it  appears  so  prominently  in  the  pages  of  Mr. 
Spencer's  work.  This  has  not  been  accidental,  but  by  design,  indicating 
as  it  does  one  of  my  main  criticisms  of  Mr.  Spencer. 

I  can  logically  take  up  one  of  two  positions.  The  first  recognises 
matter,  whose  properties  are  merely  those  of  extension,  which  are  capable 
of  being  described  in  terms  of  geometry  and  arithmetic.  I  can  also  recog- 
nise as  the  sole  active  properties  of  matter  its  modes  and  rates  of  motion 
— the  motion,  that  is  to  say,  of  ultimate  units,  atoms,  molecules,  or 
masses,  also  capable  of  measurement. 

The  second  position  recognises  matter  and  its  activity  or  activities — 
matter  as  endowed  with  force  or  forces." 

Thus  it  will  be  observed  that  having  avowedly  dealt  with 
Matter  and  Motion  as  modes  of  Force,  I  am  "  by  design  "  criti- 
cized as  though  I  had  not  so  dealt  with  them.  Having  dis- 
tinctly said  what  I  mean  by  Matter  and  Motion,  I  am  prac- 
tically told  that  I  shall  not  mean  that,  but  shall  mean  what 
Mr.  Guthrie  means;  and  shall  be  dealt  with  accordingly.  And 
then,  further,  it  will  be  observed  that  of  the  two  positions 
which  Mr.  Guthrie  lays  down  as  possible,  and  proceeds  to 


594  APPENDIX. 

argue  upon  as  alternatives,  one  or  other  of  which  I  must  ac- 
cept, both  speak  of  Matter  and  units  of  Matter  as  though 
actually  existing  under  the  forms  thought  by  us;  and  the 
last,  speaking  of  "  matter  as  endowed  with  force  or  forces/' 
implies  that  whether  in  mass  or  in  units,  Matter  is  a  space- 
occupying  something  which  is  in  the  one  case  inert  and  the 
other  case  made  active  by  force  with  which  it  is  "  endowed  " 
— force  which  is  added  to  the  inert  something.  Spite  of  all 
the  pains  I  have  taken  to  show  that  I  regard  Matter  as  itself 
a  localized  manifestation  of  Force — spite  of  all  the  evidence 
that  our  idea  of  a  unit  of  Matter,  or  atom,  is  regarded  by  me 
simply  as  a  symbol  which  the  form  of  our  thought  obliges  us 
to  use,  but  which  we  cannot  suppose  answers  to  the  reality 
without  committing  ourselves  to  alternative  impossibilities 
of  thought;  I  am  debited  with  the  belief  that  Matter  actually 
consists  "  of  space-occupying  units,  having  shape  and  meas- 
urement." Though  I  have  repeatedly  made  it  clear  that  our 
ideas  of  Matter,  Motion  and  Force  are  but  the  x,  y,  and  z  with 
which  we  work  our  equations,  and  formulate  the  various  rela- 
tions among  phenomena  in  such  way  as  to  express  their  order 
in  terms  of  x,  y  and  z — though  I  have  shown  that  the  realities 
for  which  x,  y  and  z  stand,  cannot  be  conceived  by  us  as  actu- 
ally existing  thus  or  thus  without  committing  ourselves  to 
alternative  absurdities;  yet  questions  are  put  implying  that  I 
must  hold  one  or  other  hypothesis  concerning  these  actual 
existences,  and  I  am  supposed  to  be  involved  in  all  the  diffi- 
culties which  arise. 

Another  work  devoted  to  the  refutation  of  my  views,  is 
that  of  Professor  Birks, — Modern  Physical  Fatalism  and  the 
Doctrine  of  Evolution,  including  an  examination  of  Mr.  H. 
Spencer's  First  Principles.  Having  dealt  with  the  work  of  Mr. 
Guthrie,  I  cannot  pass  by  that  of  Prof.  Birks  without  raising 
the  suspicion  that  I  find  some  difficulty  in  dealing  with  it. 
Indeed,  I  do  find  a  difficulty, — a  difficulty  illustrated  by  that 
found  in  disentangling  a  skein  of  silk  which  has  been  pulled 
about  by  a  child  for  half  an  hour.  And  just  as  the  patience 
of  a  bystander  would  fail  were  he  asked  to  look  on  until,  by 
unravelling  the  tangled  skein,  its  continuity  was  proved;  so 
would  the  reader's  attention  be  exhausted  before  I  had  recti- 
fied one-tenth  part  of  the  meshes  and  knots  into  which  Prof. 
Birks  has  twisted  my  statements. 

Abundant  warrant  for  this  assertion  is  furnished  by  the 


APPENDIX.  595 

very  first  paragraph  succeeding  the  one  in  which  Prof.  Birks 
announces  that  he  is  about  to  take  First  Principles  as  repre- 
sentative of  the  "  fatalistic  theory."  In  this  paragraph  he 
represents  me  as  asserting  that  ultimate  religious  ideas  are 
"  incapable  of  being  conceived."  He  further  says  that  ulti- 
mate scientific  ideas  are  by  me  "  pronounced  equally  incon- 
ceivable." Now  any  clear-headed  reader  who  accepted  Prof. 
Birks'  version  of  my  views,  would  be  led  to  debit  me  with  the 
absurdity  of  saying  that  certain  things  which  are  put  together 
in  consciousness  (ideas)  cannot  be  put  together  in  conscious- 
ness (conceived).  To  conceive  is  to  frame  in  thought;  and 
as  every  idea  is  framed  in  thought,  it  is  nonsense  to  say  of  any 
idea  that  it  cannot  be  conceived — nonsense  which  I  have  no- 
where uttered.  My  statement  is  that  "  Ultimate  Scientific 
Ideas,  then,  are  all  representative  of  realities  that  cannot  be 
comprehended;  "  and  the  like  is  alleged  of  ultimate  religious 
ideas.  The  things  which  I  say  cannot  be  comprehended  or 
conceived,  are  not  the  ideas,  but  the  realities  beyond  con- 
sciousness for  which  the  ideas  in  consciousness  stand.  In 
Professor  Birks'  statement,  however,  inconceivableness  of  the 
realities  is  transformed  into  inconceivableness  of  the  answer- 
ing ideas!  Further,  at  the  end  of  this  first  paragraph  which 
deals  with  me,  I  am  represented  as  teaching  that  religion  "  is 
equivalent  to  Nescience  or  Ignorance  alone."  This  statement 
is  as  far  removed  from  the  truth  as  the  others.  I  have  argued 
at  considerable  length,  and  in  such  various  ways  that  I  thought 
it  impossible  to  misunderstand  me,  that  though  the  Power 
universally  manifest  to  us  through  phenomena,  alike  in  the 
surrounding  world  and  in  ourselves, — the  Power  "  in  which 
we  live  and  move  and  have  our  being," — is,  and  must  ever 
remain,  inscrutable;  yet  that  the  existence  of  this  Inscruta- 
ble Power  is  the  most  certain  of  all  truths.  I  have  contended 
that  while,  to  the  intellectual  consciousness,  this  Power, 
though  unknowable  in  nature,  must  be  ever  present  as  exist- 
ing, it  must  be,  to  the  emotional  consciousness,  an  object  to 
the  sentiment  we  call  religious;  since,  in  substance  if  not  in 
form,  it  answers  to  the  creating  and  sustaining  Power  towards 
which  the  religious  sentiment  is  in  other  cases  drawn  out. 
Yet  though  in  the  most  emphatic  way  I  have  represented  this 
unknown  and  unknowable  Power  as  the  object-matter  of  re- 
ligion, Prof.  Birks  represents  me  as  saying  that  the  unknow- 
ableness  of  it  is  the  object-matter  of  religion!  Though  I  hold 
that  an  Ultimate  Being,  known  with  absolute  certainty  as  ex- 


596  APPENDIX. 

isting,  but  of  whose  nature  we  are  in  ignorance,  is  the  sphere 
for  religious  feeling;  he  says  I  hold  that  the  ignorance  alone 
is  the  sphere  for  religious  feeling! 

When  in  the  first  sixteen  lines  specifically  treating  of  my 
views,  these  three  cases  occur,  it  may  be  imagined  what  an 
intricate  plexus  of  misrepresentations,  misunderstandings,  and 
perversions,  fills  the  three  hundred  and  odd  pages  forming 
the  volume.  Especially  may  it  be  anticipated  that  the  meta- 
physical discussions,  occupying  five  chapters,  are  so  confused 
that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  deal  with  them.  I  must  limit 
myself  to  giving  a  sample  or  two  from  this  part  of  the  work: 
one  of  them  illustrating  Prof.  Birks'  critical  fairness,  and  the 
other  his  philosophic  capacity. 

In  his  chapter  on  "  The  Keality  of  Matter,"  he  says  (page 
111)  "  The  sense  of  reality  in  things  around  us,  Mr.  Spencer 
has  truly  said,  is  one  which  no  metaphysical  criticisms  can 
shake  in  the  least;  "  and  the  rest  of  the  paragraph  is  devoted 
to  enlarging  upon  this  proposition.  The  next  paragraph 
begins —  '  Permanent  possibilities  of  sensation  '  is  merely  an 
ingenious  phrase,  to  disguise  and  conceal  a  self-contradic- 
tion: "  sundry  antagonistic  criticisms  upon  this  phrase  being 
appended.  And  then  the  opening  words  of  the  paragraph 
which  succeeds  are  quoted  from  First  Principles.  Xow  since 
the  refutation  of  my  views  is  the  aim  of  the  work;  and  since 
both  the  preceding  and  succeeding  passages  specifically  refer 
to  my  work;  and  since  no  other  name  is  mentioned;  every 
reader,  not  otherwise  better  instructed,  will  conclude  that  as 
a  matter  of  course  the  phrase  "  permanent  possibilities  of 
sensation  "  is  mine;  and  that  the  criticisms  upon  it  tell  against 
me.  Even  were  there  evidence  that  this  phrase  "  permanent 
possibilities  of  sensation,"  expressed,  or  harmonized  with,  a 
doctrine  entertained  by  me;  yet  as  the  phrase  is  not  mine,  the 
quoting  it  as  mine  would  have  been  a  literary  misdemeanour. 
What  then  must  be  said  of  it  when,  instead  of  standing  for 
any  view  of  mine,  it  stands  for  an  opposite  view?  Mr.  Mill's 
expression,  quoted  by  Prof.  Birks  as  though  it  were  my  ex- 
pression, belongs  to  a  theory  of  knowledge  entirely  at  variance 
with  that  set  forth  and  everywhere  impliedini^V^Pn'^c/^/es; 
and  a  theory  which,  where  the  occasion  was  fit,  I  have  per- 
sistently combated  (see  Principles  of  Psychology,  Part  VII. 
"  General  Analysis  ").  And  yet  Prof.  Birks  tacitly  makes  me 
responsible  for  the  incongruities  which  result  from  uniting 
this  theory  with  the  opposed  theory. 


APPENDIX.  597 

From  this  sample  of  critical  truthfulness  let  us  pass  now 
to  a  sample  of  critical  acumen. 

In  arguing  against  Hamilton  and  Mansell  in  §  26,  I  have 
said  "  It  is  rigorously  impossible  to  conceive  that  our  knowl- 
edge is  a  knowledge  of  appearances  only,  without  at  the  same 
time  conceiving  a  Eeality  of  which  they  are  appearances;  for 
appearance  without  reality  is  unthinkable."  On  page  121 
of  his  work,  Prof.  Birks,  quoting  the  last  five  words  of  this 
sentence,  continues — "  This  is  true,  when  once  the  conception 
of  distance  has  been  gained  by  actual  experience."  And  he 
then  proceeds  to  comment  upon  visual  impressions,  illusive 
and  other.  Again  on  page  135,  when  criticizing  my  argument 
concerning  the  indestructibility  of  matter,  Prof.  Birks  says: — 

"  Matter,  as  knowable,  is  declared  to  be  not  the  unseen  reality,  but  the 
sensible  appearances,  or  phenomenal  matter  alone.  Phenomenal  matter, 
it  appears  from  daily  and  hourly  experience,  appears  and  disappears, 
perishes  and  is  new-created  continually  ....  The  cloud  vanishes,  the 
star  sets,  or  a  mist  blots  it  out,  the  drop  evaporates,  the  ship  melts  into 
the  yeast  of  waves,  the  candle  is  burnt  away  and  comes  to  an  end.  The 
substance  may  last  in  another  form,  but  the  phenomenon  or  appearance 
is  gone  ....  Thus,  by  the  theory,  of  Matter,  the  Noumenon,  we  know 
nothing,  and  therefore  cannot  know  that  it  is  indestructible.  Of  Mat- 
ter, the  Phenomenon,  we  may  know  much.  And  one  main  thing  we 
know  of  it,  proved  by  hourly  experience,  is  that  it  both  may  be  and  con- 
tinually is  destroyed.  For  an  appearance  is  destroyed  and  perishes,  when 
it  ceases  to  appear." 

In  which  sentences,  as  in  all  accompanying  sentences  covering 
several  pages,  the  implication  is  that  Prof.  Birks  identifies 
appearance  in  the  philosophical  sense  with  appearance  in  the 
popular  sense!  Everywhere  his  expressions  and  arguments 
make  manifest  the  fact  that  Prof.  Birks  thinks  the  meaning 
of  phenomenon  in  metaphysical  discussion,  is  no  wider  than 
that  implied  by  its  derivation — something  visible!  Sounds, 
smells,  tastes,  are  in  his  view  not  phenomena;  nor  are  touches, 
pressures,  tensions.  And  hence  it  results  that  since  when  a 
pound  of  salt  is  dissolved  in  water  it  ceases  to  be  visible,  its 
existence,  phenomenally  considered,  ends:  its  continued  power 
of  affecting  our  senses  by  its  weight,  to  the  same  extent  as 
before  the  solution,  not  being  considered  as  a  phenomenal 
manifestation  of  its  existence! 

In  §  46,  when  commenting  on  the  mental  confusion  which 
metaphysical  discussions  often  produce,  I  have  ascribed  this 
in  part  to  the  misleading  connotations  of  the  words  "  appear- 
ance "  and  "  phenomenon; "  and  after  illustrating  this  have 
said: — 


593  APPENDIX. 

••  So  that  the  implication  of  uncertainty  has  infected  the  very  word 
appearance.  Hence,  Philosophy,  by  giving  it  an  extended  meaning,  leads 
us  to  think  of  all  our  senses  as  deceiving  us  in  the  same  way  that  the  eyes 
do :  and  so  make  us  feel  ourselves  floating  in  a  world  of  phantasms,  liad 
■phenomenon  and  appearance  no  such  misleading  associations,  little,  if  any, 
of  this  mental  confusion  would  result.  Or  did  we  in  place  of  them  use 
the  term  effect,  which  is  equally  applicable  to  alJ  impressions  produced  on 
consciousness  through  any  of  the  senses,  and  which  carries  with  it  in 
thought  the  necessary  correlative  cause,  with  which  it  is  equally  real,  we 
should  be  in  little  danger  of  falling  into  the  insanities  of  idealism." 

This  caution  was  intended  for  the  general  reader.  That  it 
might  be  needed  by  one  who  should  undertake  to  deal  with 
the  work  critically,  never  occurred  to  me.  Xot  only,  how- 
ever, does  it  seem  that  Prof.  Birks  (who  quotes  the  last  three 
words  of  the  paragraph)  needs  such  a  caution,  but  it  further 
seems  that  the  caution  is  thrown  away  upon  him.  For  just 
those  misinterpretations  of  the  words  above  pointed  out,  are 
the  misinterpretations  he  makes.  After  this  I  shall,  I  think, 
be  absolved  from  examining  further  his  metaphysical  criti- 
cisms. 

Of  his  criticisms  upon  various  of  the  physical  doctrines 
which  this  work  contains,  I  will  notice  two  only — the  one 
because  I  wish  to  repudiate  a  view  which,  spite  of  abundant 
evidence  to  the  contrary,  he  ascribes  to  me;  and  the  other 
because,  based  as  his  statement  is  on  a  fact  which  he  misin- 
terprets, it  is  desirable  to  give  the  right  interpretation  of  it. 
On  page  188,  Prof.  Birks  says: — - 

"  The  Essence  of  the  doctrine  held  by  Mr.  Grove,  Dr.  Tyndall,  and  Mr. 
Spencer,  and  which  the  last  has  made  the  foundation  of  his  whole  theory 
of  Physical  Fatalism,  is  that  there  is,  every  moment,  an  unchanging 
total  of  Force,  which  never  varies  in  amount,  while  it  incessantly  changes 
its  form.  The  Force,  then,  which  persists,  must  be  a  present  existence. 
But  Potential  Energy  is  nothing  of  the  kind.  It  is  the  sum  of  trillions 
of  trillions  of  future  possibilities  of  force,  ranging  through  trillions  of 
trillions  of  different  future  intervals  of  time." 

Xow  the  tacit  implication  here  is,  that  I  accept  the  doc- 
trine of  Potential  Energy.  The  men  of  science  named,  with 
many  others  who  might  be  added,  hold  that  the  total  quan- 
tity of  force  remains  constant.  Against  these  it  is  urged  that 
energy  in  becoming  potential,  ceases  to  exist;  and  that  there- 
fore the  doctrine  is  untrue.  And  being  represented  as  hold- 
ing this  doctrine  in  common  with  them,  I  am  said  to  have  based 
my  general  fabric  of  conclusions  upon  a  fallacy.  In  the  first 
place  I  have  to  ask  on  what  authority  Prof.  Birks  assumes  that 
I  hold  the  doctrine  of  Potential  Energy  in  the  way  in  which 
it  is  held  by  those  named?    And  in  the  second  place  I  have 


APPENDIX.  599 

to  ask  how  it  happens  that  Prof.  Birks,  elaborately  criticizing 
my  views  step  by  step,  deliberately  ignores  the  passages  in 
which  I  have  repudiated  this  doctrine?  In  the  chapter  on 
"  The  Continuity  of  Motion,"  I  have,  at  considerable  length, 
given  reasons  for  regarding  the  conception  of  Potential  Energy 
as  an  illegitimate  one;  and  have  distinctly  stated  that  I  am 
at  issue  with  scientific  friends  on  the  matter.  Devoting,  as 
Prof.  Birks  does,  his  chapter  entitled  "  The  Transformation 
of  Force  and  Motion,"  to  the  incongruities  which  result  when 
the  doctrine  of  the  Persistence  of  Force  is  joined  with  the  doc- 
trine of  Potential  Energy,  as  commonly  received,  it  was  doubt- 
less convenient  to  assume,  spite  of  the  direct  evidence  to  the 
contrary,  that  I  accept  this  doctrine,  and  am  implicated  in  all 
the  consequences.  But  there  can  be  but  one  opinion  respect- 
ing the  honesty  of  making  the  assumption.  Let  me  add  that 
my  rejection  of  this  doctrine  is  not  without  other  warrant 
than  my  own.  Since  the  issue  of  the  last  edition  of  this  work, 
containing  the  passages  I  have  referred  to,  Mr.  James  Croll, 
no  mean  authority  as  a  mathematician  and  physicist,  has  pub- 
lished in  the  Philosophical  Magazine  for  Oct.,  1876,  p.  241, 
a  paper  in  which  he  shows,  I  think  conclusively,  that  the  com- 
monly accepted  view  of  Potential  Energy  cannot  be  sustained, 
but  that  energy  invariably  remains  actual.  I  learn  from  him 
that  he  had  in  1867  indicated  briefly  this  same  view. 

The  remaining  case,  above  adverted  to  as  calling  for  com- 
ment, concerns  my  motive  for  suppressing  a  certain  passage 
in  the  chapter  on  "  Ultimate  Scientific  Ideas,"  and  substitut- 
ing another  passage.  Before  proceeding  to  state  the  reasons 
for  this  substitution,  and  to  disprove  the  inferences  which 
Prof.  Birks  draws  from  it,  I  may  remark  that  it  is  usual  in 
literary  criticism  to  judge  an  author  by  the  latest  expression 
of  his  views.  It  is  commonly  thought  nothing  but  fair  that 
if  he  has  made  an  error  (I  say  this  hypothetically,  for  in  this 
case  I  have  no  error  to  acknowledge)  he  should  be  allowed  the 
benefit  of  any  correction  he  makes.  Prof.  Birks,  however, 
apparently  thinks  that,  moved  by  the  high  motive  of  "  doing 
God  service,"  he  is  warranted  in  taking  the  opposite  course 
— perhaps  thinks,  indeed,  that  he  would  fail  of  his  duty  did 
any  regard  for  generous  dealing  prevent  him  from  making  a 
point  against  an  opponent  of  his  creed. 

But  now,  saying  no  more  about  the  ethics  of  criticism,  I 
pass  to  the  substantial  question.  In  the  first  place,  I  have 
to  point  out  that  in  the  passage  suppressed  I  have  not  said 


(300  APPENDIX. 

that  which  Prof.  Birks  alleges.  He  represents  me  as  assert- 
ing "  that  gravitation  is  a  necessary  result  of  the  laws  of 
space "  (p.  22?).  I  have  asserted  no  such  thing.  He  says 
"  There  can  be  no  a  priori  necessity  that  every  particle  should 
act  on  every  other  at  all  at  every  distance  "  (p.  222).  I  have 
nowhere  said,  or  even  hinted,  that  there  is  any  such  a  priori 
necessity.  The  notion  "  that  gravitation  results  by  a  fatal 
necessity  from  the  laws  of  space/'  which  he  ascribes  to  me 
(p.  229)  is  one  which  I  should  repudiate  as  utterly  absurd,  and 
one  which  is  not  in  the  remotest  way  implied  by  anything  I 
have  said.  What  I  have  said  is  that  "  Light,  Heat,  Gravita- 
tion, and  all  central  forces,  vary  inversely  as  the  squares  of 
the  distances,"  and  that  "  this  law  is  not  simply  an  empirical 
one,  but  one  deducible  mathematically  from  the  relations  of 
space."  Now  what  is  here  said  to  be  "  deducible  mathe- 
matically from  the  relations  of  space  ?  "  Not  a  thing,  or  a 
force,  but  a  law.  What  is  the  law  here  said  to  be  knowable 
a  priori?  The  law  of  variation  of  any  or  every  central  force. 
And  what  is  alone  included  in  the  assertion  of  this  a  priori 
law?  Simply  this,  that  given  a  central  force  and  such  is  the 
law  according  to  which  it  will  vary.  Nothing  is  alleged  re- 
specting the  existence  of  any  central  force.  Does  Prof.  Birks 
contend  that  if  I  say  that  light,  proceeding  from  a  centre, 
necessarily  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance,  I 
thereby  say  that  the  existence  of  light  itself  is  known  a  priori 
as  a  result  of  space  relations?  When  I  assert  that  of  the  heat 
radiating  in  all  directions  from  a  point,  the  quantity  falling 
on  a  given  surface  necessarily  decreases  as  the  square  of  the 
distance  increases,  do  I  thereby  assert  the  necessary  existence 
of  the  heat  which  conforms  to  this  law?  Why  then  do  I,  in 
asserting  that  the  lata  of  variation  of  gravity  "  results  by  a 
fatal  necessity  from  the  laws  of  space  "  simultaneously  assert 
"  that  gravitation  results  by  a  fatal  necessity  from  the  laws 
of  space  ?  n  Prof.  Birks,  however,  because  I  assert  the  first 
says  I  assert  the  second.  My  proposition — Central  forces  vary 
inversely  as  the  squares  of  the  distances,  he  actually  trans- 
forms into  the  proposition — There  is  a  cosmical  force  which 
varies  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the  distances.  And  debiting 
me  with  the  last  as  identical  with  the  first,  proceeds,  after 
his  manner,  to  debit  me  with  various  resulting  absurdities. 

Having  thus  shown  that  the  passage  in  question  contains 
no  such  statement  as  that  which  Prof.  Birks  says  it  contains, 
I  go  on  to  show  that  I  have  not  removed  this  passage  because 


APPENDIX.  got 

I  have  abandoned  the  belief  it  embodies.  Clear  proof  is  at 
hand.  If  Prof.  Birks  will  turn  to  the  "  Replies  to  Criticisms/' 
contained  in  the  third  volume  of  my  Essays:  Scientific,  Politi- 
cal and  Speculative,  (pp.  334-337)  he  will  find  that  I  have 
there  defended  the  above  proposition  against  a  previous  attack; 
and  assigning,  as  I  have  done,  justification  for  it,  I  have  shown 
no  sign  of  relinquishing  it.  Why,  then,  Prof.  Birks  will  ask, 
did  I  make  the  change  in  question?  Had  his  mental  attitude 
been  other  than  it  is,  he  might  readily  have  divined  the  reason. 
Knowing,  as  he  seemingly  does,  that  this  doctrine  which  he 
criticizes  had  been  already  criticized  in  a  similar  manner  (for 
otherwise  he  would  scarcely  have  discovered  the  change  I 
have  made),  he  might  have  seen  clearly  enough  that  the  pas- 
sage was  suppressed  simply  to  deprive  opponents  of  the  oppor- 
tunity of  evading  the  general  argument  of  the  chapter  by 
opening  a  side  issue  on  a  point  not  essential  to  its  argument. 

The  chapter  has  for  its  subject,  certain  incapacities  of  the 
human  mind — a  subject,  by  the  way,  on  which  theologians 
are  never  tired  of  enlarging  when  it  suits  their  own  purpose, 
but  on  which  an  antagonist  may  not  enlarge  without  exciting 
their  anger.  Various  examples  of  these  incapacities  are  given, 
to  justify  and  enforce  the  conclusion  drawn.  Among  these 
was  originally  included  the  example  in  question.  Misrepre- 
senting it  as  Prof.  Birks  misrepresents  it,  another  writer  had 
before  him  similarly  based  on  his  misrepresentation  sundry 
animadversions.  Though  still  regarding  the  statement  I  had 
actually  made  (not  the  one  ascribed  to  me)  as  valid,  I  con- 
cluded that  it  would  be  best  to  remove  the  stumbling-block 
out  of  the  way  of  future  readers;  and  therefore  decided  to 
replace  the  illustration  by  another.  The  rest  of  the  chapter 
remains  exactly  as  it  was,  and  its  argument  is  not  in  the  re- 
motest degree  affected  by  this  substitution.  Nevertheless, 
Prof.  Birks,  wrongly  describing  the  nature  of  the  illustration, 
and  wrongly  attributing  the  removal  of  the  illustration  to 
change  in  my  belief,  also  wrongly  conveys  the  impression  that 
the  doctrine  which  the  illustration  contained  had  some  vital 
connection  with  the  general  argument  of  the  chapter  and  with 
the  doctrine  of  the  work;  and  by  conveying  this  impression 
calls  forth  exultation  from  religious  periodicals. 

Were  I  to  deal  with  Prof.  Birks'  book  page  by  page,  a 
much  larger  book  than  his  would  be  required  to  expose  his 
mis-statements,  perversions,  confusions.  The  above  exam- 
ples must  suffice.  I  will  add  only  that  in  one  belief  of  his  I 
40 


602  APPENDIX. 

cordially  agree  with  him.  At  the  close  of  his  preface  he  says — 
"  I  think  that  those  who  take  the  pains  to  read  my  strictures, 
and  compare  them  with  the  statements  of  the  work  to  which 
they  are  a  reply,  will  find  the  effort  repaid  by  a  clearer  appre- 
hension of  the  topics  in  debate."  And  I  venture  to  join  with 
this  the  expression  of  my  belief  that  if  readers  follow  Prof. 
Birks'  tacit  suggestion,  "  a  clearer  apprehension  of  the  topics 
in  debate  "  will  not  result  from  acceptance  of  his  criticisms. 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 

(For  this  Index  the  Author  is  indebted  to  F.  Howard  Collins,  Esq. 
of  Edgbaston,  Birmingham.) 


"  A  priori  truth."  defined,  183  n. 

Absolute,  the  :  Mansel  on  conception  of, 
40-4,  78-81,  89-99;  also  Hamilton, 
76-8,  89-99. 

Adaptation,  an  instance  of  equilibration, 
526. 

Albumen,  number  of  atoms  in,  423. 

Alimentary  canal,  evolution  of,  399-401. 

Amalgamation,  the  same  as  integration, 
586. 

America,  Central,  effects  of  subsidence, 
451. 

Animals,  see  Biology. 

Annealing,  molecular  action  of,  301. 

Annulosa,  longitudinal  and  transverse 
integration  in,  323. 

Appearance  and  phenomenon,  mislead- 
ing associations  of,  161,  597. 

Army,  evolution  of  an,  405. 

Arnold,  M.,  on  the  formula  of  evolution, 
5S1. 

Arts,  the  :  integration  shown  by,  334-7  ; 
also  heterogeneity,  360-4 ;  'definite- 
ness,  389  ;  and  multiplied  effects.  468. 

Assyria,  artistic  development  in,  360-4. 

Astacus  flu  vial ■His,  transverse  and  longi- 
tudinal integration  in,  324. 

Astronomy,  various  conceptions  of  solar 
motion,  105  ;  persistence  of  force  ex- 
emplified by  planetary  motion,  192; 
transformation  and.  equivalence  of 
forces,  211-3  ;  the  laws  of  motion, 
236-8 ;  rhythm  of  motion,  264-6  ;  si- 
dereal and  solar  integration,  318,  340  ; 
increased  definiteness  of  evolving  solar 
system,  375 ;  greater  definiteness  of 
prevision  in,  387  ;  redistributions  of 
motion  in  evolving  solar  system,  396 ; 
instability  of  the  nomogeneous  illus- 
trated by  stellar  distribution  and 
colour,  416-9  ;  by  the  nebular  hypo- 
thesis, 419-21 ;  and  by  planetary  or- 


bits, 421  ;  the  multiplication  of  ef- 
fects, 446-8  ;  segregation,  479  ;  inde- 
pendent, or  perfect  moving  equili- 
brium, 500;  Equilibrium  mobile,  501, 

502  ;  calculations  to  disprove  the 
nebular  hypothesis,  504  n. ;  equilibra- 
tion  illustrated,  by   nebular   genesis, 

503  ;  by  the  planetary  motions,  504-6  ; 
and  by  solar  heat  diffusion,  506-8 ; 
terrestrial  disintegration,  540  ;  univer- 
sal evolution  and  dissolution,  541-9 ; 
Sir  J.  Herschel  on  stellar  concentra- 
tion, 545 ;  gravitation  of  magellanic 
clouds,  544. 

Atheism  unthinkable,  33. 

Babinet,    J.,    on    nebular    hypothesis, 

504  n. 

Baer,  K.  E.  von,  the  formula  of,  347. 

Ball  and  string,  perceptible  and  latent 
activity  shown  by,  189. 

Beckett,  Sir  E.,  Origin  of  the  Laics  of 
Nature,  577. 

Bees,  the  sex  of,  454, 

Beliefs  :  usually  founded  on  fact,  3-5  ; 
the  common  groundwork  of  opposed, 
5-11  ;  {see  also  Religion.) 

Biology  :  relativity  of  knowledge  and 
the  nature  of  life,  84^9  ;  definition  of 
life,  86 ;  transformation  and  equiva- 
lence of  forces,  216-9  ;  laws  of  motion, 
240-4;  rhythm  of  motion,  270-3  ;  uni- 
versal presence  of  integration  and  dis- 
integration, 294  ;  amount  of  contained 
motion  in  animals  and  plants,  310-4 ; 
and  their  mutual'  interdependence, 
321-5  ;  heterogeneity  of  evolving  or- 
ganisms, 344-7,  351  ;  Von  Baer's  for- 
mula, 347 ;  increasing  definiteness  of 
mammalian  development,  378-81 :  has 
increasing  definiteness  characterized 
evolving  "flora  and  fauna?,  381  ;  redis- 


603 


604 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


tributions  of  motion  of  evolving  func- 
tions, 398-401 ;  instability  of  the  ho- 
mogeneous,  424-30;  multiplication  of 
effects,  452-60  ;  probable  effects  of  up- 
heavals in  East  Indian  Archipelago, 
456-8  ;  segregation,  482-6  :  equilibra- 
tion, 511-6  ;  dissolution,  535-7. 

Bird,  wounded,  apologue,  71-3,  460. 

Birks,  T.  R.,  on  First  Principles,  594-602. 

Blood,  mental  effects  ot  cerebral  supply, 
223. 

Body:  distinguishable  from  space,  194, 
233. 

Bones :  integration  in  ossifying,  322 ; 
heterogeneity  in  various  races,  351 ; 
increased  definiteness,  380 ;  segrega- 
tion in  ossifying,  482-6. 

Boscovich,  R.  J.,  theory  of  matter,  54-7, 
61. 

Botany :  transformation  and  equiva- 
lence of  forces,  216-9;  laws  of  mo- 
tion, 239-44 ;  contained  motion,  310-4 ; 
mutual  interdependence  of  animals 
and  plants,  321,  325;  heterogeneity  of 
evolving  plants,  344-7;  has  increas- 
ing definiteness  characterized  evolv- 
ing flora  ? ,  381  ;  instability  of  the 
homogeneous,  424—30 ;  eflects  of  up- 
heavals in  East  Indian  Archipelago,' 
456-8 ;  plant  classification  showing 
psychical  segregation,  486-8.- 

Brain  :  causes  influencing  action  of,  223 ; 
integration  of  growth,  321. 

Brewster,  Sir  D.,  on  the  nebular  hy- 
pothesis, 504  n. 

Bronze,  effects  of  substitution  for  stone, 
464. 

Bullets,  projection  of,  202. 

Burnev,  Dr.  C,  on  musical  development, 
366/ 

Candle  :  chemical  explanation  of  burn- 
ing, not  philosophical,  284-6 ;  eflects 
on  igniting,  444. 

Cannon,  rhythm  consequent  upon  dis- 
charge, 261. ' 

Caoutchouc,  introduction  in  England  of, 
467. 

Cause,  the  First:  infinite  and  absolute, 
37-40:  Mansel  on.  40-4;  relativity  of 
knowledge  and  inconceivability  of,  95  ; 
is  unknowable,  110-6. 

Cause  and  effect,  popular  misconceptions 
of,  180. 

Centipedes,  unintegrated  and  homoge- 
neous motions,  401. 

Change,  universality  of,  291-3. 

Chemistry :  transformation  of  chemical 
action  into  other  modes  of  force,  209, 
210;  heat  as  facilitating  change,  302; 
stability  of  elements  and  compounds, 
'303-5;  increasing  definiteness  of,  387  ; 


instability  of  the  homogeneous,  413, 
421-4 ;  segregation  of  analysis  and  crys- 
tallization, 476;  dissolution,  538-40. 

Cilia,  homogeneous  and  indefinite  move- 
ments of,  401. 

(  la-sification:  a  progressive  integration, 
332 ;  considered  psychologically  with 
segregation,  486-8. 

Coherence  (see  Integration). 

Coleridge,  S.  T.,  verbal  "  desvnonymiza- 
tion,"  432. 

Colloids,  instability  of,  305. 

Comte,  A. :  co-ordination  of  knowledga, 
132;  on  the  nebular  hypothesis,  504  n. 

Concentration  (see  Integration). 

Conception :  the  actual  and  symbolic 
compared,  26-30 ;  the  preliminary  and 
complex,  314. 

Consciousness  (see  Psychology). 

Conservation  of  energy,  objections  to 
the  term,  194  h. 

Conservatism:  advantages  of  a  theo- 
logical, 119-22;  contrasted  with  re- 
form, 525. 

Contradictories  and  correlatives,  Hamil- 
ton on,  91-4. 

Creation,  an  inconceivable  hvpothesis, 
33-7. 

Croll,  J.,  on  potential  energy,  599. 

Crystalloids,  stability  of,  305. 

Crystals :  simple  evolution  illustrated 
by,  306 ;  influences  aflecting  segrega- 
tion, 477  ;  conform  to  law  of  dissolu- 
tion, 538. 

Daxcixg  :  rhythm  of,  274;  origina^d 
with  poetry  and  music,  364-9. 

Darwin,  C. :  date  of  publication  of  Oriyin 
of  Species,vi;  "  natural  selection  "  and 
multiplication  of  effects,  458  «. ;  diver- 
gence of  character.  486. 

Death:  are  Ave  progressing  to  omni- 
present? 527;  its  relation  to  dissolu- 
tion, 535-7. 

Decomposition,  an  increase  in  indefinite 
heterogeneity.  372-5. 

Definiteness,  a  characteristic  of  evolu- 
tion :  the  evidence  from  astronomy, 
375.  387 ;  geology,  375,  376-8 ;  meteo- 
rology, 378  ;  embryology,  378-81  ; 
bioloirv  with  botany,  381;  sociology, 
883-5^*388;  philology,  385;  mathema- 
tics. 386;  mechanics,  387,  389;  chem- 
istry, 388;  physiology,  388;  the  arts, 
389;  literature,  390;'  is  a  secondary 
phenomenon  of  evolution,  391. 

Definition,  difficulties  attending,  139. 

Disease  :  the  rhythm  of,  278  ;  an  increase 
in  indefinite"  heterogeneity.  372-5 ; 
hereditary  transmission  of,  429  ;  exem- 
plifies multiplication  of  effects,  453. 

Dissolution :  definition  of,  295,  536  ;  in- 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


605 


terdependent  with  evolution,  531 ;  law 
supported  from  sociology,  532-5 ;  bi- 
ology, 535-7  ;  geology  and  chemistry, 
537-40  ;  astronomy^  540  ;  considered 
universally  with  evolution,  542-9,  563. 

Divine  Eight,  substituted  for  belief  in 
divine  origin,  6. 

Division  ofdabour,  social  :  an  increase 
in  heterogeneity,  355-7  ;  illustrates  in- 
stability of  the  homogeneous,  436  ; 
multiplication  of  effects,  462-7  ;  and 
motion  along  line  of  least  resistance, 
491. 

Dress,  progressive  heterogeneity  of,  585. 

Earth,  the,  conceptions  only  symbolic, 
26  ;  (see  also  Geology.) 

Earthquakes  :  exemplify  laws  of  motion, 
240 ;  periodicity  of,  269  ;  a  geologist's 
not  a  philosophical  explanation,  284-6  ; 
an  increase  in  indefinite  heterogeneity, 
375. 

Effects,  multiplication  of:  evidence  from 
astronomy,  446-8  ;  heat,  448  ;  geology, 
448-52, 456 ;  meteorology,  450,  452  ;  em- 
bryology, 453-5  ;  botany  and  zoology, 
456-8  ;  philology,  459  ;  psychology, 
460-2  ;  sociology,  462-8  ;  corollary  from 
persistence  of  force,  4GS-70 ;  final  sum- 
mary, 562. 

Ego  and  non-ego,  156-8. 

Egypt,  artistic  development  in,  360-4. 

Electricity :  transformation  into  other 
modes  of  force,  208,  210;  rhythm  of 
the  current,  261. 

Elie  de  Beaumont,  L.,  the  earth's  irregu- 
larity, 214. 

Embryology  :  connection  between  vital 
and  physical  forces,  218 ;  exemplifies 
progressive  integration,  321-5 ;  in- 
crease in  heterogeneity  of  all  organisms, 
344-7  ;  definiteness  of  mammalian  de- 
velopment, 378-81 ;  instability  of  the 
homogeneous,  424-30;  multiplication 
of  effects,  453-5 ;  sex  dependent  on 
incident  forces,  454 ;  Ivirkman's  criti- 
cism, 581. 

Emotions  (see  Psychology). 

Energy  :  "  actual  "  and  "  potential,"  189, 
1 93  «...  195  ;  the  author  assumed  to  hold 
doctrine  of  potential,  598. 

Engine  (see  Mechanics). 

Eiiiozoa,  development  of,  454. 

Equilibration  :  four  orders  of,  500  ;  law 
supported  from  astronomy,  503-8 ; 
geology,  509-11  ;  biology  and  physi- 
ology, 511-6  ;  psychology,  516-20  ; 
sociology,  520-7  :  and  persistence  of 
force,  527-30  ;  summary,  562. 

Equilibrium,  unstable,  defined,  412. 

Equilibrium  mobile,  instances  of,  499, 
501. 


Error,  definition  of,  87. 

Ethnology  :  evolution  of  mankind,  an 
increase  in  heterogeneity,  353 ;  the 
savage  and  the  European  compared, 
460  ;  segregation  of  physical  and  psy- 
chical conditions,  486-8. 

Europe,  national  integration  in,  327,  585. 

Evolution  :  superior  to  the  word  involu- 
tion, 296  ;  an  integration  of  matter  and 
dissipation  of  motion,  296,  315;  simple 
and  compound,  297-300,  306-8,  339 ; 
with  dissolution  the  total  history  of 
existence,  315  ;  characterized  by  coher- 
ence, 337  ;  relative  nature  of  the  defi- 
nition of,  340  n.\  a  change  from  an  in- 
coherent homogeneity  to  a  coherent 
heterogeneity,  etc.,  371  ;  increase  in 
definiteness  a  secondary  phenomenon, 
391  ;  a  change  from  an  indefinite,  in- 
coherent, homogeneity,  etc.,  391  ;  final 
definition,  407 ;  persistence  of  force 
underlies  phenomena  of,  409,  560-3  ; 
resolutions  accompanying  redistribu- 
tions of  matter  and  motion,  410 ;  aid 
rendered  by  multiplication  of  effects, 
444-6  ;  which  is  deducible  from  per- 
sistence of  force,  469  ;  aid  rendered  by 
segregation,  471-9  ;  relation  to  law  of 
equilibration,  496-503  ;  can  end  only 
in  the  greatest  perfection,  530  ;  mutu- 
ally interdependent  with  dissolution, 
531 ;  considered  universally  with  dis- 
solution, 542-9,  563 ;  the  final  sum- 
mary, 556-8  ;  universality  of,  558-60  ; 
justified  by  unification  of  developing 
knowledge,  565-7  ;  the  formula  criti- 
cised by  "Tait,  575-82  ;  Kirkman,  577- 
82  ;  M.  Arnold,  581  ;  North  American 
Review,  581 ;  T.  E.  Cliffe  Leslie,  583- 
91 :  M.  Guthrie,  591-4 :  and  Birks, 
594-602 ;  traits  associated  in  the  defi- 
nition must  be  considered  as  a  whole, 
584 ;  is  dependent  on  conditions,  588, 
590. 

Existence,  the  cognition  of,  66-8. 

Explanation,  limitation  of,  71-5. 

Eye,  development  of  the,  431. 

Faculty,   capacity   and  desire  usually 

associated,  462. 
Fashion:   rhythm   of,   278;   progressive 

heterogeneity  of  dress,  585. 
Fibrine,  number  of  atoms  in,  423. 
Figures,  mental  development  and,  179. 
Fiji,  belief  in  ruler's  unlimited  power,  5. 
First  Cause  {see  Cause,  the  First). 
First  Principles,  aim  and  scope  of,  xvii. 
Flint  implements,  lack  of  precision  and 

definiteness,  389. 
Food,  equilibration  of  quantity  to  force 

expended,  512-14. 
Force  :  incomprehensibility  of,  60-3 ;  un- 


COG 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


derlies  time,  space,  matter,  and  mo- 
tion, 172;  the  intrinsic  and  extrinsic 
forms  of,  194-6;  persistence  of  rela- 
tions among  various  forms  of,  201 ; 
the  various  forms  qualitatively  and 
quantitatively  correlated,  205-10  ;  reso- 
lutions accompanying  redistributions 
of  matter  and  motion,  410  ;  heteroge- 
neous effect  of  action  on  homogeneous 
aggregate,  437 ;  and  the  multiplied 
effects,  442-6;  Tait's  definitions  of, 
576. 

Force,  persistence  of  (see  Persistence). 

Forces  :  of  attraction  and  repulsion  sym- 
bols, not  realities,  232-4  ;  persistence  of 
force  underlies  parallelogram  of,  255 ; 
persistence  of  relations  among,  a  philo- 
sophical truth,  282. 

Forees,  the  transformation  and  equiva- 
lence of:  shown  in  astronomy,  211-3  ; 
geology,  213-6;  biology,  216-9;  psy- 
chology and  physiology,  219-26 ;  so- 
ciology. 226-9  ;  corollary  from  persist- 
ence of  force,  229 ;  a  philosophical 
truth,  283. 

Generalities,  when  unsuggestive,  578- 
83. 

Geology  :  the  transformation  and  equi- 
valence of  forces,  213-6  ;  laws  of  mo- 
tion, 238^40  ;  rhythm  of  aqueous  and 
igneous  action,  266-70 ;  changes  un- 
dergone by  species,  272  ;  segregation  of 
silica  in  porcelain  clay,  303  ;  terrestrial 
integration,  319-21  ;and  heterogeneity, 
341-4;  the  record  consistent  with  evo- 
lution from  simple  to  complex,  347- 
51 ;  indefinite  heterogeneity  of  earth- 
quakes, 375 ;  increased  definiteness 
inferable  from  terrestrial  structure, 
375-8 ;  molar  motion  originating  in 
molecular,  393 ;  redistributions  of  mo- 
tion from  earth's  evolution,  397  ;  hete- 
rogeneity of  trap  rock,  414;  physi- 
cal effects  of  instability  of  the  ho- 
mogeneous, 421  :  also  chemical,  422-4 ; 
multiplied  effects  of  diminishing  ter- 
restrial heat,  448 ;  and  of  aqueous  and 
atmospheric  agencies,  449-52 ;  prob- 
able effects  of  "upheavals  in  East  In- 
dian archipelago,  456-60 ;  segregation 
of  aqueous  and  igneous  action,  480-2 ; 
equilibration  illustrated,  509-11  ;  also 
law  of  dissolution,  538-40;  the  earth's 
disintegration,  540. 

Glass,  molecular  effect  of  annealing,  301. 

Government:  authority  and  functions 
of,  5-11 ;  evolution  of,  marked  by  in- 
creasing heterogeneity,  353-5  ;  also  in- 
tegration, heterogeneity,  and  definite- 
ness, 406  ;  and  by  equilibration,  524-7. 

Granite,  segregation  of,  .4^1. 


Gravity  :  incomprehensibility  of,  62, 105  > 
shows  "  latent"  and  "  perceptible  "  ac- 
tivity, 190  ;  terrestrial  effects  of,  213-6 ; 
effect  on  vascular  system,  243. 

Grove,  Sir  W.  K.,  The  Correlation  of  the 
Physical  Forces,  209. 

Growth :  laws  of  motion  exemplified, 
240-4 ;  universal  presence  of,  292  ;  in- 
tegration of,  294;  shows  molecular  be- 
coming molar  motion,  393. 

Guthrie,  M.  On  Mr.  Spencers  Formula 
of  Evolution,  591-4. 

Hamilton,  Sir  W.  K.  :  the  philosophers 
agreeing  in  relativity  of  knowledge, 
71 ;  on  the  absolute  and  infinite,  76-8, 
89-99;  correlatives,  91-3;  trustworthi- 
ness of  consciousness,  143. 

Harvests,  correlation  of  vital  and  physi- 
cal forces,  227-9. 

Heart,  the :  spiral  form  of,  242  ;  mental 
influences  on,  246  ;  increasing  definite- 
ness of  development,  380. 

Heat :  of  air  breathing  animals,  134 ; 
transformation  into  other  modes  of 
force,  206-8,  210;  Joule's  mechanical 
equivalent,  210 ;  terrestrial  effects  of 
solar,  213-6 :  a  cause  of  condensation 
or  diffusion,  292,  293 ;  molecular  ef- 
fects, 301 ;  chemical  stability,  303-5  ; 
simple  and  compound  evolution  illus- 
trated, 305-8 ;  amount  possessed  by 
organisms,  309,  310-4 :  instability  of 
the  homogeneous,  413 ;  multiplied  ef- 
fects of  the  terrestrial  decrease,  421-4, 
448 ;  action  on  simple  and  complex 
combinations,  423 ;  action  of,  on  sphere, 
438 ;  aids  segregation  in  granite,  481  ; 
equilibration  shown  by  solar,  506-8; 
necessary  for  organic  and  inorganic 
dissolution,  536,  538,  540. 

Helmholtz,  H. :  on  solar  heat  diffusion, 
507  ;  terrestrial  motion  and  the  tidal 
wave,  509;  thermal  equivalent  of 
earth's  motion,  540. 

Heredity,  the  instability  of  the  homo- 
geneous, 428-30. 

Herschel,  Sir  J.  F.  W.:  a  rotating  ethe- 
rial  medium,  505 ;  the  sun's  rays  the 
ultimate  source  of  every  motion,  509 
n. ;  stellar  concentration,  545. 

Heterogeneity  of  matter :  its  increase 
during  evolution  shown  by  astronomy, 
340  ;  meteorology,  343  ;  geology,  341-4; 
biology  with  embryology  and  botany, 
344-7  :  paleontology,  347-51 ;  sociol- 
ogv.  351-7;  ethnology,  352;  philology, 
357-60  ;  the  arts  and"  literature,  360-9. 

Heterogeneity  of  motion  (see  Motion). 

Hieroglyphics,  the  development  of,  359. 

Hinton.  J.,  on  direction  of  organic  growth, 
240-3. 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


607 


History,  definition  of  complete,  288-90. 

Homogeneous,  instability  of  the,  412-6  ; 
evidence  from  mechanics,  413 ;  astro- 
.nomy,  416-21;  geology,  414,  421; 
chemistry,  413,  421-4 ;  meteorology, 
424;  biology  with  embryology  and 
botany,  4^4-30;  psychology,  431-4; 
philology,  432;  sociology,  434-7;  co- 
rollary from  persistence  of  force,  437- 
41 ;  relation  to  segregation,  473 ;  sum- 
mary, 560. 

Huxley,  Prof.  T.  H. :  on  persistence  of 
force,  1 94  n. ;  Persistent  Types,  349 ; 
osseous  segregation,  484. 

Ideas  :  and  impressions,  145-60, 174;  ad- 
vantages of  preliminary,  314. 

Impulsiveness,  influences  modifying, 
461. 

India :  domestic  and  political  fixity  in, 
383 ;  segregation  ot  physical  condi- 
tions in,  4S9. 

Induction,  necessary  to  verify  deduc- 
tion, 317. 

Infinite,  the :  Mansel  on  conception  of, 
40-4,  78-81,  89-94;  also  Hamilton,  76- 
8,  89-94. 

Insanity,  correlation  of  the  mental  and 
physical  forces,  225. 

Insects,  transformation  of  physical  and 
vital  force  exemplified  by,  219. 

Integration  of  matter:  and  disintegra- 
tion, 291  ;  the  primary  aspect  of  evo- 
lution, supported  by  astronomy,  318 ; 
geology,  319-21 ;  biology,  with  em- 
ryology  and  botany,  321-5 ;  sociol- 
ogy, 326-9;  philology,  329-32;  sci- 
ence and  meteorology,  332 ;  industrial 
and  aesthetic  arts,  334-7. 

Integration  of  motion  (see  Motion). 

Involution  and  evolution,  the  terms,  296. 

Iron,  molecular  rearrangement  in,  300. 

Japan,  effect  of  European  civilization 

in,  533. 
Joule,   J.  P.,  mechanical  equivalent  of 

heat,  210. 

Kant,  Im.,  space  and  time  forms  of  the 
intellect,  51. 

Kirkman,  T.  P.,  on  the  formula  of  evo- 
lution, 577-82. 

Knowledge  :  thought  transcended  by,  16 ; 
resume  showing  limitations,  68 ;  rela- 
tivity of,  84-8  ;  definition  of  complete, 
288-90;  unification  of  developing, 
565-7. 

Language  (see  Philology). 
Laplace,  P.  S.,  on  nebulous  ring  develop- 
ment, 419,  479. 


Latham,  R.  G.,  on  inflexional  language, 
331. 

Laughter,  laws  of  motion  exemplified 
by,  247. 

Law :  of  continuity,  53,  59 ;  uniformity 
of,  203 ;  the  author's  belief  in  univer- 
sality of,  347  n. ;  increase  in  definite- 
ness  of  evolving  statutes,  384 ;  develop- 
ing systems,  and  the  formula  of  evo- 
lution, 589-91. 

Leibnitz,  G.  W.,  theory  of  matter,  55. 

Leslie,  T.  E.  Clift'e,  on  the  formula  ot 
evolution,  583-91. 

Liberty  :  general  establishment  of,  7 ; 
equilibration  of,  527. 

Life  :  and  relativity  of  knowledge,  84-9; 
definition  of,  86. 

Light :  transformed  into  other  modes  of 
force,  209 ;  compound  rhythm  of 
interference,  262 ;  like  mode  of  pro- 
duction with  sound,  334 ;  segregation 
exemplified,  478. 

Literature :  integration  of,  336  ;  hetero- 
geneity, 369 ;  increasing  truth  of  rep- 
resentation, 390  ;  multiplied  effects  of, 
468. 

Liver,  development  of,  380. 

Logic,  definition  of  "  a  priori "  and 
"  necessary  "  truths,  193  n. 

Magnetism  :  transformation  into  other 
modes  of  force,  208,  209  ;.  illustrates 
laws  of  motion,  235 ;  rhythm  of  varia- 
tions, 266 ;  consequent  on  added  mo- 
tion, 301  ;  segregative  power,  473  ; 
equilibration  and  the  solar-spot  cycle, 
510. 

Majorities,  usually  in  error,  5. 

Manifestations,  the  vivid  and  faint,  147- 
60,174. 

Manners  and  Fashion,  essay  on,  354. 

Mansel,  H.  L. :  on  the  first  cause,  the 
absolute  and  the  infinite,  40-4,  78-81, 
89-94 ;  conceptions  of  rational  the- 
ology, 42  ;  consciousness  of  self,  67  ; 
attributes  being  asserted  of  the  abso- 
lute, 110. 

Marriages,  equilibration  to  means  of  sub- 
sistence, 520. 

Ufarsupialia,  integration  of  generative 
system  in,  324. 

Materialism  and  evolution,  568-72. 

Mathematics  :  figures  and  mental  devel- 
opment, 179  ;  increase  in  definiteness, 
386. 

Matter:  divisibility,  52;  incomprehensi- 
bility, 52-7  ;  solidity,  53 ;  theories  of 
Boscovich,  54-6,  61 ;  Leibnitz,  55  ;  and 
Newton,  54-6,  61  ;  connection  with 
force,  60-3  ;  consciousness  of,  170  ;  in- 
destructibility, 176-8,  182  ;  creation 
and  annihilation,  unthinkable,  180-2  ; 


608 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


and  space,  233 ;  indestructibility  of, 
a  philosophical  truth,  281,  286;  mo- 
lecular motion  and  rearrangement  of 
parts,  300-3  ;  contained  motion  in  or- 
ganic, 308-10,  310-4  ;  effect  of  uniform 
force  on  uniform,  442-6. 

Maxwell,  J.  Clerk,  on  Thomson  and 
Tait's  Treatise  on  Natural  Philosophy, 
576. 

Measurement,  unable  to  prove  persist- 
ence of  force,  197-9. 

Mechanics :  progressive  integration  of 
machinery,  334 ;  increase  in  Indefinite- 
ness  of,  387,  389  ;  instability  of  the 
homogeneous  illustrated,  413 ;  multi- 
plied effects  of  locomotive  engine,  465 ; 
dependent  moving  equilibrium  shown 
by  steam  engine,  500. 

Metaphysics :  sense  of  illusion  after  read- 
ing, 161 ;  antagonism  resulting  from 
word  real,  162." 

Meteorology  :  laws  of  motion  exempli- 
fied, 238-40;  also  rhythm  of  motion, 
266-9  ;  effect  of  heat  on  clouds,  293 ; 
visibility  and  audibility  of  objects  pre- 
ceding rain,  333 ;  climatic  effects  of 
terrestrial  irregularity,  343;  definite- 
ness  of  phenomena  of,  378  ;  molar, 
originating  in  molecular  motion,  393  ; 
redistributions  of  motion  caused  by 
earth's  evolution,  397 ;  instability  of 
the  homogeneous,  424 ;  multiplied 
effects  of  solar  action,  450 ;  probable 
effects  of  Central  American  subsidence, 
451  ;  segregating  effect  of  climate, 
439. 

Microscopes,  great  exactness  of,  389. 

Mill,  J.  S.,  on  limit  to  industrial  progress, 
523. 

Monotremata,  integration  of  generative 
system  in.  324. 

Morbid  growths,  an  increase  in  indefi- 
nite heterogeneity,  372-5. 

Motion :  incomprehensibility  of,  57-60  ; 
relativity,  68  ;  changing  'to  rest.  59  ; 
conception  derived  from  experiences 
of  force,  170  ;  continuity  not  self-evi- 
dent, 184  ;  Newton's  first  law,  186,  576  ; 
"  latent "  and  "  perceptible,"  186-91 ; 
of  celestial  bodies  and  pendulum,  186- 
8  ;  continuity  known  in  terms  of  force, 
191 ;  and  involves  its  persistence,  192  ; 
transformed  into  heat,  electricity,  &c., 
205-10  ;  along  line  of  least  resistance, 
234-6  :  general  laws  of  direction,  236 ; 
laws  supported  by  astronomy,  236-8 ; 
meteorology,  238-40  ;  geology,  238-40  ; 
biology  and  botany,  240-4 ;  psychology, 
244-8  ;  sociology,  248-54  ;  spiral  direc- 
tion, 241 ;  persistence  of  force  under- 
lies laws  of  direction,  254-8  ;  universal 
rhythm   of,   259-64;  illustrated  from 


astronomy,  264-6;  magnetism,  266; 
meteorology,  266-9  ;  geology,  266-70  ; 
biology  with  physiology  and  palaeon- 
tology, 270-3,  398-401  ;  psychology 
with  the  arts,  273-6,  364-9,  517  ;  soci- 
ology, 276-9,  526  ;  corollary  from  per- 
sistence of  force,  279-81 ;"  final  sum- 
mary, 553  ;  continuity  of,  a  philosoph- 
ical truth,  282;  also  "law  of  direction, 
283 ;  facility  of  an  aggregate  to  undergo 
rearrangement,  298-300  -"through  space, 
and  effects  of  incident  forces,  298-300  ; 
amount  in  organic  matter,  308-314  ;  in- 
tegration, heterogeneity,  and  distinct- 
ness of  its  evolution.  392-6  ;  shown  by 
geology,  393 ;  meteorology,  393,  397 ; 
astronomy,  395 ;  biology  with  physi- 
ology, 398-401 ;  psychology,  401-5  ; 
philology,  402-4 ;  sociology,  405 ;  final- 
ly results  in  cessation,  496-8  ;  molar, 
changing  to  molecular,  and  its  relation 
to  universal  evolution  and  dissolution, 
542-9 ;  final  summary  of  the  laws  of 
direction,  553. 

Mountains  :  rybthm  in  rain  caused  by, 
267 ;  altitude  and  thickness  of  the 
earth's  crust,  320,  343,  448. 

Movement  (see  Motion.) 

Multiplication  of  effects  {see  Effects). 

Muscle  :  transformation  and  equivalence 
of  its  action  to  the  sensations  causing 
it,  221-3 ;  contraction  caused  by  in- 
terrupted nerve  discharge,  274 ;  equi- 
librium of  expenditure  to  nutrition, 
513. 

Music:  rhythm  of,  274;  and  progressive 
integration,  336 ;  originated  with  poet- 
ry and  dancing,  364-9. 

Natural  selection  :  implies  change  along 
lines  of  least  resistance,  244 ;  relation 
to  multiplication  of  effects,  459. 

Nature  :  Thomson  and  Tait's  Treatise  on 
Natural  Philosophy,  576;  Force,  by 
Tait,  576  ;  Beckett's  Origin  of  the  Laws 
of  Nature,  577. 

Nebular  hypothesis  {see  Astronomy). 

Nerves,  transverse  integration  of,  in  an- 
nulosa  and  Crustacea  323  {see  also  Psy- 
chology). 

Newton,  "Sir  I. :  theory  of  matter,  54-7, 
61 ;  on  force  of  gravity,  62,  105 ;  his 
first  law  of  motion,  186,  576. 

Nitrogen  :  instability  of  compounds,  305  ; 
amount  in  animals  and  plants,  311. 

North  American  Review,  on  formula  of 
evolution,  581. 

Object  and  subject,  156-60,  174. 
Orange  and  Earth's  crust,  449. 
Organic  matter  {see  Matter). 
Origin  of  Species,  The,  date  of  publica- 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


609 


tion,  vi.;  "natural  selection"  and  mul- 
tiplication of  effects,  459. 

Ostrich,  osseous  segregation  in,  483. 

Owen,  Sir  R.,  on  anoplotherium  and 
paleolherium,  350. 

Fain,  varying  rhythm  of,  275. 

Painting  {see  Arts). 

Palaeontology :  rhythm  of  motion  shown 
by,  272  ;  its  record  consistent  with  evo- 
lution, 347-51. 

Pantheism,  inconceivability  of,  33. 

Pendulum  :  "  latent"  and  "perceptible" 
activity,  186-8;  alteration  of  rate  by 
locality,  395. 

Persistence  of  force  :  underlies  continuity 
of  motion,  192;  transcends  demonstra- 
tion, 197-200;  definition,  200;  under- 
lies uniformity  of  law,  203  ;  and  trans- 
formation and  equivalence  of  forces, 
229 ;  and  laws  of  motion,  254-8 ;  and 
rhythm  of  motion,  279-81 ;  a  philo- 
sophical and  universal  truth,  282  ;  un- 
derlies phenomena  of  evolution,  409; 
and  instability  of  the  homogeneous, 
437-41 ;  and  multiplication  of  effects, 
468-70  ;  and  segregation,  493-5 ;  and 
law  of  equilibration,  526-30 ;  sum- 
mary, showing  it  to  be  the  ultimate 
truth,  552  ;  and  evolution  to  result 
from,  560-3. 

Phenomenon  and  appearance  :  their  mis- 
leading'associations,  162 ;  misinterpret- 
ed by  Birks,  597. 

Philology  :  language  and  the  dispersion 
of  mankind,  14;  errors  of  verbal 
misinterpretation,  161-5;  integration, 
shown  by  agglutination  of  language, 
329-32 ;  by  fewer  number  of  syllables, 
330  ;  by  increasing  coherence,  331 ;  and 
greater  complexity  of  sentences,  332  ; 
incoherence  of  Chinese,  331 ;  Latham 
on  inflexional  languages,  331 ;  com- 
pleteness of  English  language,  357  ; 
increase  in  heterogeneity  of  written 
and  spoken  language,  357-60 ;  devel- 
opment "of  writing,  362  ;  integration, 
heterogeneity,  and  definiteness  of 
evolving  speech,  385,402-4;  heteroge- 
neity, "desynonymization"  of  words, 
432;  establishes  racial  community, 
459 ;  unsuggestiveness  of  abstract 
words,  577-83  ;  Leslie  on  language  and 
law  of  evolution,  583. 

Philosophers,  and  relativity  of  knowl- 
edge, 70. 

Philosophy :  hypothesis  of  first  cause, 
37-40 ;  Hamilton  on  the  absolute  and 
infinite,  75-7,'  89-99;  also  Mansel, 
40-4,  78-81,  89-99;  varied  interpreta- 
tions of,  130-3;  completely  unified 
knowledge,  133-6;   general  and  spe- 


cial, 136 ;  must  assume  intuitions 
necessary  to  thought,  139  ;  and  justify 
them,  140-2 ;  also  assume  conscious- 
ness trustworthy,  142-4;  the  postu- 
lates adopted,  159,  174;  errors  from 
verbal  misinterpretation,  161-5;  re- 
lation to  science,  282-7;  resume  of 
the  laws  constituting  it,  282;  should 
seek  law  of  continuous  redistribution 
of  matter  and  motion,  287  ;  and  unify 
history  of  existences,  288-90 ;  formula 
must  comprehend  evolution  and  diffu- 
sion, 291  ;  induction  necessary  to 
verify  deduction,  317  ;  summary  of  its 
relation  to  evolution  and  dissolution, 
551-6 ;  to  science  and  religion,  564 ; 
and  conclusion,  with  the  doctrines  re- 
stated, 568-72. 

Phosphorus  in  the  brain,  223. 

Physiology :  knowing,  illustrated  by 
processes  of,  72 ;  transformation  and. 
equivalence  of  forces,  220-4  ;  rhythm 
of  motion,  270 ;  increasing  definite- 
ness of,  387  ;  integration  of  alimentary 
canal,  399-401 ;  correlation  of  organs 
to  functions,  511-6. 

Physiology,  Transcendental,  and  Origin 
of  Species,  dates  of  publication,  v-vi. 

Piano,  thought  and  concept  of,  97. 

Pleasure,  varying  rhythm  of,  275. 

Poetry:  rhythm  of,  274;  originated 
with  music  and  dancing,  364-9. 

Political  economy,  rhythm  in  the  pro- 
cesses of,  276-9. 

Population  :  equilibration  of,  520  ;  disso- 
lution shown  by  decrease,  534. 

Pressure,  hypothesis  of  an  universal 
232-4. ' 

Principles  of  Biology,  general  aim  and 
scope,  xvii. 

Principles  of  Morality,  general  aim  and 
scope,  xxi. 

Principles  of  Psychology,  general  aim 
and  scope,  xviii. 

Principles  of  Sociology,  general  aim  and 
scope,  xix. 

Printing,  the  development  of,  362. 

Progress,  its  Law  and  Cause,  and  Ori- 
gin of  Species  :  dates  of  publication, 
v,  347  n. 

Protein,  characteristics  of,  308-10. 

Protestantism  and  Catholicism,  117. 

Protozoa  :  extreme  indetinitcness,  381 ; 
and  lack  of  differentiated  parts,  425. 

Psychology  :  knowledge  transcended  by 
thought,  16;  actual  and  symbolic 
conceptions,  27-30 ;  Mansel  on  the 
absolute  and  infinite,  40-4,  78-81,  89- 
99;  consciousness  only  conceivable  as 
a  relation,— Mansel,  41 ;  duration  of 
consciousness  inconceivable,  64-5 ; 
also    its    substance,   66-9 ;    relativity 


610 


SUBJECT-IXDEX. 


of  cognitions,  71-5,  137-40  ;  Hamilton 
on  the  absolute  and  infinite,  75-7,  89- 
99;  likeness  implied  by  complete  act 
of  consciousness,  81-4;  the  definite 
and  indefinite  forms  of  consciousness, 
89-93,  96;  the  belief  in  the  actuality 
behind  appearances,  96-9  ;  formation 
of  a  thought  shown  by  concept  of 
piano,  97 ;  philosophy  must  assume 
consciousness  trustworthy.  142-4  :  the 
two  classes  of  manifestations,  145-60  : 
relation  the  universal  form  of  thought, 
165;  experiences  of  force  underlie 
modes  of  consciousness.  172;  recogni- 
tion of  "  necessary  truths,"  178-80  ;  the 
conception  of  force,  196  ;  correlation 
and  equivalence  of  physical  and  men- 
tal forces,  221-6;  the  laws  of  motion 
exemplified,  244-8;  also  rhythm  of 
motion,  273-6,  364-9,  517 ;  the  inte- 
gration, etc.,  dis] ilayed  by  evolving 
phenomena  of,  401-5;  instability  of 
the  homogeneous  exemplified,  431-4  ; 
also  multiplication  of  effects,  460-3  ; 
persistence  of  force  underlies  assertion 
of  dissimilarity,  469 ;  segregation  of 
developing  nerve  structure,  486-8: 
and  of  men's  affinities,  488-93 ;  equili- 
bration shown  by  moral  and  nervous 
adaptations,  516-20;  rhythm  exempli- 
fied by,  517 ;  mental  defects  from 
studying  one  group  of  sciences,  583. 
Pythagoras,  philosophy  defined  by,  130. 

Railways  :  rhythm  of  trains,  261  ;  in- 
tegration exemplified  by  clearing 
house,  328;  multiplied  effect  of,  465. 

Eeal,  definition  of,  162-5. 

Eeform,  contrasted  with  conservatism, 
525. 

Religion:  relation  to  science,  11-13; 
universality,  and  independent  evolu- 
tion of,  13-18;  antagonism  shown  to 
science,  18-21 ;  the  subject  matter 
transcends  experience,  17 ;  the  funda- 
mental verity  of  its  varied  forms,  17, 
123;  the  discovery  of  which  would 
aid  its  development,  21-3;  can  only 
coalesce  with  science  in  some  abstract 
truth,  23 ;  the  various  creeds  defined, 
44;  the  underlying  mystery,  absolute, 
44-8;  summary  reconciling  it  with 
science,  100;  its  gradual  purification, 
101-4  ;  instances  of  its  irreligion,  102  ; 
the  purification  effected  by  science, 
104-7 ;  a  necessary  correlative  to  sci- 
ence, 107-110 ;  the  ultimate  cause  un- 
knowable, 110-6 :  and  of  which  no 
attributes  should  be  asserted,  110; 
its  approximation  to  the  truth  depend- 
ent on  contemporary  mental  develop- 
ment, 118-22;   its  imperfections  rela- 


tive, 118,  124;  advantages  of  eonserva* 
tism  in,  118-22;  toleration  needful  in 
dealing  with  its  beliefs,  122-4 ;  rhythm 
displayed  by, 278;  heterogeneity  shown 
by  its  evolution,  353-5  ;  religious  char- 
acter of  early  art,  361 ;  the  poetry, 
music,  and  dancing,  of  its  ancient 
festivals,  364;  summary  of  its  relation 
to  philosophy  and  science,  564;  and 
conclusion  with  doctrines  re-stated, 
568-72. 

Respiration,  explained  to  illustrate 
knowing,  73. 

Rest,  changing  to  motion,  unthinkable, 
59. 

fihizopods,  without  limiting  membrane, 
425. 

Rhythm  (see  Motion). 

Rivers,  lateral  undulations  of,  257. 

Roads  follow  line  of  least  resistance, 
252. 

Rulers,  varied  interpretations  of  their 
origin  and  power,  5-11. 

Salutations,  the  heterogeneity  of  their 
evolution,  354. 

Sand,  rhythm  shown  by  ridging  of,  263. 

Scales,  instability  of  the  homogeneous 
exemplified  by,  413. 

Science:  general  justification,  18-21:  a 
higher  development  of  common  knowl- 
edge, 18  ;  is  prevision,  19  ;  decreases 
superstition,  104;  instances  of  its  be- 
ing unscientific,  106;  is  partially  uni- 
fied knowledge,  133-6,  567 ;  rhythm 
of  its  varied  eras,  278  ;  and  philoso- 
phy, 282-7 ;  its  progressive  integra- 
tion, 332-4;  mutual  "interdependence 
of  its  division,  338 ;  increase  in  hetero- 
geneity, 369;  and  definiteness,  386-8; 
exemplifies  multiplication  of  effects, 
467 ;  final  summary  of  its  relation  to 
philosophy  and  religion,  564;  and  con- 
clusion with  the  doctrines  restated, 
568-72 :  mental  discipline  of,  583 ;  {see 
also  Religion  I. 

Sculpture  (see  Arts). 

Segregation:  the  varied  modes  of  action 
of,  471-9  ;  illustrated  from  magnetism, 
473;  chemistry,  476;  light,  478;  as- 
tronomy, 479  ;  geology,  480-2;  biology 
with  osteologv,  482-6 ;  psvcholocrv, 
486-8,  488-90 ;  sociology  with  eth- 
nology and  anthropology,  488-93 ; 
resume,  493-5;  final  summary,  561. 

Self,  its  cognition  forbidden  by  nature 
of  thought,  66-8. 

Self-creation  an  inconceivable  hypothe- 
sis, 33. 

Self-existence,  an  inconceivable  hypothe- 
sis, 31-3. 

Sex,  and  the  embryo,  454. 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


611 


Ship :  relativity  of  motion,  57 ;  rhythm 
of  motion,  259. 

Shops,  integration  displayed  by,  587. 

Small-pox,  multiplied  effects  of,  453. 

Sociology :  transformation  and  equiva- 
lence of  the  social,  vital,  and  physical 
forces,  226-9 ;  laws  of  motion  illus- 
trated by  a  society's  growth,  248-50; 
by  localization  of  industries,  250 ;  by 
barter,  etc.,  251-3 ;  and  by  commerce, 
253-4 ;  exemplifies  rhythm  of  motion, 
276-9,  526 ;  progressive  integration  of 
societies,  326-9 ;  the  increase  in  hete- 
rogeneity of  civilization,  351-7 ;  and 
in  the  detiniteness  of  an  evolving  so- 
ciety, 383-5  ;  increasing  detiniteness  of, 
388 ;  integration,  heterogeneity,  and 
detiniteness  of  social  evolution,  405; 
the  instability  of  the  homogeneous, 
434-7  ;  multiplication  of  effects,  462-7  ; 
segregation, 488-93 ;  equilibration,  520- 
7;  law  of  dissolution  conformed  to  by 
an  evolving  society,  532-5. 

Sound  and  light,  their  like  modes  of 
production,  334. 

Space  :  without  limit,  inconceivable,  16  ; 
also  its  non-existence  and  creation,  36  ; 
wholly  incomprehensible,  49-52;  its 
inconceivability  an  argument  for  rela- 
tivity of  knowledge,  95 ;  experiences 
of  force  underlie  consciousness  of, 
168-72;  how  distinguishable  from 
body,  194,  233. 

Species:  rhythm  in  increase  and  decrease, 
271;  palasontological  evidence,  272 ;  are 
'  they  becoming  moredefinitely marked? 
382;  instability  of  the  homogeneous, 
430 ;  also  segregation,  485  ;  and  equili- 
bration, 575. 

Sphere,  action  of  radiant  heat  on,  438. 

Spiritualism  and  evolution,  568-72. 

Sponges,  general  indefiniteness  of,  382. 

Statue,  intrinsic  and  extrinsic  absurdity 
exemplified  by,  581. 

Stephenson,  G.,  on  solar  rays,  509  n. 

Stewart,  B.,  and  P.  G.  Tait,  The  Unseen 
Universe,  575. 

Subject  and  object,  156-60. 

Substance  (see  Matter). 

Sugar,  segregation  in  preserves,  303, 

Sun,  the :  varied  terrestrial  effects,  213-6; 
plant-life  dependent  on,  216  ;  inspira- 
tion increased  by,  221 ;  correlation  of 
social  and  physical  forces,  228  ;  redis- 
tribution of  motion  effected  by,  394; 
its  reserve  of  force,  506-8. 

Supply  and  demand,  521-4. 

Tait,  Prof.  P.  G.,  The  Unseen  Universe, 
575 ;  on  the  formula  of  evolution,  575- 
82 ;  lecture  on  Force,  576. 

Tape-worm,  development  of,  454. 


Temperature  (see  Heat). 

Tension,  the  hypothesis  of  an  universal, 
232-4. 

Theism,  hypothesis  inconceivable,  34-7. 

Theology,  Mansel  on  fundamental  con- 
ceptions of  rational,  42 ;  (see  also  Re- 
ligion). 

Theories,  the  basis  common  to  all,  45. 

Tide,  Ilelmholtz  on  terrestrial  effects  of, 
509. 

Time  :  incomprehensibility  of,  49-52  ; 
relativity  of  knowledge  shown  by,  95 ; 
consciousness  of,  arises  from  experi- 
ences of  force,  165-9. 

Top,  equilibration  of  spinning,  498. 

Trains  (see  Railways). 

Transcendental  Physiology,  and  Origin 
of  Species :  their  dates  of  publication, 
v;  chapter  on  "instability  of  the  ho- 
mogeneous" a  development  of,  412  n. 

Truth  :  definition  of,  87, 141 ;  a  "  neces- 
sary," 178-80 ;  "  a  priori  "  and  "  ne- 
cessary," 183  n.;  words  expressing  the 
highly  abstract  unsuggestive,.  579- 
84. 

Tuning-fork,  persistence  of  force,  279- 
81. 

Tyndall,  Prof.  J.,  on  the  rhythm  of  mo- 
tion, 262  n. 

Universe,  the ;  hypothesis  of  self-exist- 
ence, 31-3 ;  of  atheism,  32 ;  of  self- 
creation,  33  ;  and  of  creation  by  exter- 
nal agency,  34-7. 

Unknowable,  the:  3-126,  564;  the  ulti- 
mate cause  is,  111-6 ;  the  two  classes 
of  its  manifestations,  147-60;  sum- 
mary of  its  relation  to  the  knowable, 
564. 

Unseen  Universe,  criticism  of,  575. 

Unstable  equilibrium,  definition  of,  412. 

Varnish,  effect  of  drying,  414. 

Vascular  system  :  influenced  by  force  of 
gravity,  243  ;  heterogeneity  of  its  evo- 
lution, 399  ;  and  multiplied  effects, 
453. 

Velocity,  intermediate  [degrees  of  a 
changing,  53,  58. 

Vertebrata  :  transverse  and  longitudinal 
integration  of,  324 ;  also  heterogeneity 
of  osseous  system,  351. 

Vessel  (see  Ship). 

Vision  deceptive  when  unverified  by 
touch,  162,  165. 

Volcanoes :  laws  of  motion  illustrated  by, 
240 ;  rhythm  of  eruptions,  269. 

Watch,  theological  simile,  113. 

Water:  laws  of  motion  shown  by,  240; 
rhythm  caused  in  opposing  objects  by, 
259,  263;   organic  redistributions  e'f- 


12 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


tected  by,  310-4 ;  segregative  power  of, 

472,  475,  480. 
Weighing    and    persistence     of    force, 

197-9. 
Weight,     popular     misconceptions     of, 

180  n. 


Whewell,  Dr.  W.,  on  increasing  definite- 

ness  of  science,  386-8. 
Wind,  segregative  action  of,  472,  475. 
Words  and  abstract  truths,  577-83  {see 

also  Philology). 
Writing  {see  Philology). 


THE  END. 


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